Originally shared by Infinity Watch
Alert:
http://www.cnn.com/2016/02/29/americas/mexico-radioactive-device-missing/index.html
Monday, February 29, 2016
Leonardo DiCaprio FINALLY Wins an Oscar & Get Political in Speech at Oscars 2016
Originally shared by H George Tavakoli
Leonardo DiCaprio FINALLY Wins an Oscar & Get Political in Speech at Oscars 2016
Leonardo DiCaprio finally takes home an Oscar for his incredible role in 'The Revenant.' Leo's moment was made even better as the actor made a passionate speech about climate change.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7r-EAqv86K0
PLEASE
Originally shared by Steve Parsons (SustainableLivingSystems)
PLEASE ... Remember to 're-share' often to other G+ communities, .. to the public G+ stream, ...and to your personal email distribution list(s). At this point, ... the goal is to quickly 'wake-up' as many folks as possible. ' We ' (collectively) must achieve 'critical mass' IMMEDIATELY ! Do not be concerned about re-sharing multiple times. 'We' (collectively) .. are fighting for survival .. Peace
https://www.youtube.com/watch?list=PLwfZCnPKgwKdVD716t7St-QnrhPEawxCa&v=A82IAFjkf-8
PLEASE ... Remember to 're-share' often to other G+ communities, .. to the public G+ stream, ...and to your personal email distribution list(s). At this point, ... the goal is to quickly 'wake-up' as many folks as possible. ' We ' (collectively) must achieve 'critical mass' IMMEDIATELY ! Do not be concerned about re-sharing multiple times. 'We' (collectively) .. are fighting for survival .. Peace
https://www.youtube.com/watch?list=PLwfZCnPKgwKdVD716t7St-QnrhPEawxCa&v=A82IAFjkf-8
Genetically Modified Attack Baboons
Originally shared by Freeman Fly
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xFRO_-Znec&feature=autoshare
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xFRO_-Znec&feature=autoshare
Did you think #EPAemployees were busy solving the nationwide #WaterProblem?
Did you think #EPAemployees were busy solving the nationwide #WaterProblem? Think again: http://bit.ly/1SaHl0O #EPA #lead #Flint #water
http://www.naturalnews.com/053126_EPA_employees_government_corruption_lead_contaminated_water.html
http://www.naturalnews.com/053126_EPA_employees_government_corruption_lead_contaminated_water.html
#Microwave cooking promotes nutritional deficiencies and increases the risk of #cancer: http://bit.ly/1SaIqWc
#Microwave cooking promotes nutritional deficiencies and increases the risk of #cancer: http://bit.ly/1SaIqWc
http://www.newstarget.com/2016-02-24-microwave-cooking-promotes-nutritional-deficiencies-and-increases-the-risk-of-cancer.html
http://www.newstarget.com/2016-02-24-microwave-cooking-promotes-nutritional-deficiencies-and-increases-the-risk-of-cancer.html
SOME people think the Sacklers belong in prison.
Originally shared by H George Tavakoli
SOME people think the Sacklers belong in prison. read about it here: http://www.healthnutnews.com/fda-approves-purdues-oxyconti…/
FDA Approves First GMO Flu Vaccine: Expected On Market in 2014
FDA Approves First GMO Flu Vaccine: Expected On Market in 2014
http://www.collective-evolution.com/2013/07/12/fda-approves-first-gmo-flu-vaccine-expected-on-market-in-2014/
Is it any wonder whereever Jews gain control the whole nation looses its identity and begins to decay, due to...
Originally shared by Dont Threaten Me
Is it any wonder whereever Jews gain control the whole nation looses its identity and begins to decay, due to treachery and subversion, common traits within the Jews.
Liars, Deceivers and Traitors
https://endzog.files.wordpress.com/2014/02/02.jpg?w=1000
Is it any wonder whereever Jews gain control the whole nation looses its identity and begins to decay, due to treachery and subversion, common traits within the Jews.
Liars, Deceivers and Traitors
https://endzog.files.wordpress.com/2014/02/02.jpg?w=1000
"We Jews, We are the Destroyers, and will remain the Destroyers.
Originally shared by Dont Threaten Me
"We Jews, We are the Destroyers, and will remain the Destroyers.
Nothing you can do will meet our Demands and Needs.We Will Forever Destroy Because WE WANT A WORLD OF OUR OWN"
Maurice Samuel- (JEW)
-----------------------------------------------
Oh the poor Jews forever being blamed and used as "scapegoats"
( a term the ignorant non-Jews use often) for no reason.
They have a history and Record of being Nation Wreckers
https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/-AUQtExXohUw/VqKJBAaiIsI/AAAAAAAABPU/y7B5ElfHvxU/w856-h553-no/Screen%2BShot%2B2016-01-22%2Bat%2B14.54.00.png
"We Jews, We are the Destroyers, and will remain the Destroyers.
Nothing you can do will meet our Demands and Needs.We Will Forever Destroy Because WE WANT A WORLD OF OUR OWN"
Maurice Samuel- (JEW)
-----------------------------------------------
Oh the poor Jews forever being blamed and used as "scapegoats"
( a term the ignorant non-Jews use often) for no reason.
They have a history and Record of being Nation Wreckers
https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/-AUQtExXohUw/VqKJBAaiIsI/AAAAAAAABPU/y7B5ElfHvxU/w856-h553-no/Screen%2BShot%2B2016-01-22%2Bat%2B14.54.00.png
Angela Merkel is in part a Polish Jew
Originally shared by Dont Threaten Me
Angela Merkel is in part a Polish Jew
Keeping in fine tradition of nation wrecking and a whole continent
https://endzog.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/057.jpg?w=1000
Angela Merkel is in part a Polish Jew
Keeping in fine tradition of nation wrecking and a whole continent
https://endzog.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/057.jpg?w=1000
The Jewish parasites that destroyed Russia and murdered tens of millions Christian Russians.
Originally shared by Dont Threaten Me
The Jewish parasites that destroyed Russia and murdered tens of millions Christian Russians.
A real Holocaust you don't hear us forever complaining and milking
http://themillenniumreport.com/2015/03/the-jews-in-the-soviet-union-by-aleksandr-solzhenitsyn/
The Jewish parasites that destroyed Russia and murdered tens of millions Christian Russians.
A real Holocaust you don't hear us forever complaining and milking
http://themillenniumreport.com/2015/03/the-jews-in-the-soviet-union-by-aleksandr-solzhenitsyn/
Sunday, February 28, 2016
US Government Sells $680 Million In "Bunker Buster" Bombs To ISIS-Supplier Turkey
Originally shared by H George Tavakoli
US Government Sells $680 Million In "Bunker Buster" Bombs To ISIS-Supplier Turkey
http://www.zerohedge.com/news/2016-02-27/us-government-sells-680-million-bunker-buster-bombs-turkey
US Government Sells $680 Million In "Bunker Buster" Bombs To ISIS-Supplier Turkey
http://www.zerohedge.com/news/2016-02-27/us-government-sells-680-million-bunker-buster-bombs-turkey
Please Follow:- Interesting Things
Originally shared by Interesting Things
Please Follow:- Interesting Things
A court has ruled that French Professor Gilles-Eric Séralini was correct when he concluded that GMO food, when fed...
Originally shared by Alexander Light (HumansAreFree)
A court has ruled that French Professor Gilles-Eric Séralini was correct when he concluded that GMO food, when fed to rats, caused serious health problems including tumors: http://humansarefree.com/2016/02/scientist-who-discovered-that-gmos.html
A court has ruled that French Professor Gilles-Eric Séralini was correct when he concluded that GMO food, when fed to rats, caused serious health problems including tumors: http://humansarefree.com/2016/02/scientist-who-discovered-that-gmos.html
Be a man, eat a matzo ball. hahaha Damn they're just so informed. lol
Originally shared by null
Be a man, eat a matzo ball. hahaha Damn they're just so informed. lol
http://www.dnaindia.com/world/report-instant-noodles-can-make-babies-gay-claims-indonesia-mayor-2183054
Be a man, eat a matzo ball. hahaha Damn they're just so informed. lol
http://www.dnaindia.com/world/report-instant-noodles-can-make-babies-gay-claims-indonesia-mayor-2183054
"A EUROPE WITHOUT EUROPEANS "
"A EUROPE WITHOUT EUROPEANS "
And here we have a freemason founding member of the European Union telling us in 1925 the agenda that is unfolding right now, he basically says that the white race, local cultures and nationalities will be destroyed with mass immigration in order to suppress any resistance for a supra national centralized dictatorship (new world order).
The Coudenhove-Kalergi Plan – The Genocide of the Peoples of Europe
http://www.zengardner.com/coudenhove-kalergi-plan-genocide-peoples-europe/
Infowars runs down the latest details behind Justice Antonin Scalia’s mysterious death, including revelations that...
Originally shared by Infowars - Alex Jones Channel
Infowars runs down the latest details behind Justice Antonin Scalia’s mysterious death, including revelations that the secret hunting club he was part of spun out of the Bohemian grove.
http://www.infowars.com/justice-scalia-died-surrounded-by-luciferians-special-report/
Infowars runs down the latest details behind Justice Antonin Scalia’s mysterious death, including revelations that the secret hunting club he was part of spun out of the Bohemian grove.
http://www.infowars.com/justice-scalia-died-surrounded-by-luciferians-special-report/
Carl Sagan: How Eratosthenes Proved the World is a Sphere 2000 Years Ago
Originally shared by Gertrude Perkins
Carl Sagan: How Eratosthenes Proved the World is a Sphere 2000 Years Ago
The Government will sell you your own land...
The Government will sell you your own land...
http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2016/02/23/3752342/bundy-copycat-bills-public-lands/
http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2016/02/23/3752342/bundy-copycat-bills-public-lands/
US Cops Arrest Sick Woman in the Hospital for Unpaid Fines, Put Her in Jail & Dehydrate Her to Death
Originally shared by THE RESISTANCE
US Cops Arrest Sick Woman in the Hospital for Unpaid Fines, Put Her in Jail & Dehydrate Her to Death
On July 21, of last year, Joyce Curnell, 50, of Edisto Island became very ill and was taken by ambulance to the hospital while complaining of nausea and vomiting. While she was in the hospital, somehow police were alerted to her presence over unpaid court fees and were dispatched to the scene. The sick woman was then arrested, while in the hospital, and brought to jail — where she would spend the rest of her life.
The family of Curnell has since filed a lawsuit after it was discovered that she was deprived of water until she died.
After she had been discharged from the hospital into police custody, the officers were given instructions to care for her. However, officers and jail medical staff “refused to provide any medical attention to (her) whatsoever,” the court documents stated.’
http://thefreethoughtproject.com/cops-arrest-sick-woman-hospital-unpaid-fines-put-jail-dehydrated-death/
US Cops Arrest Sick Woman in the Hospital for Unpaid Fines, Put Her in Jail & Dehydrate Her to Death
On July 21, of last year, Joyce Curnell, 50, of Edisto Island became very ill and was taken by ambulance to the hospital while complaining of nausea and vomiting. While she was in the hospital, somehow police were alerted to her presence over unpaid court fees and were dispatched to the scene. The sick woman was then arrested, while in the hospital, and brought to jail — where she would spend the rest of her life.
The family of Curnell has since filed a lawsuit after it was discovered that she was deprived of water until she died.
After she had been discharged from the hospital into police custody, the officers were given instructions to care for her. However, officers and jail medical staff “refused to provide any medical attention to (her) whatsoever,” the court documents stated.’
http://thefreethoughtproject.com/cops-arrest-sick-woman-hospital-unpaid-fines-put-jail-dehydrated-death/
Saturday, February 27, 2016
This needs to stop!!
Originally shared by Barb MacMaster
This needs to stop!!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sIoO2BBnNxQ&feature=share
This needs to stop!!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sIoO2BBnNxQ&feature=share
Bernie is simply calling for what the architects of Medicare had in mind all along.
Originally shared by Valkyrie
Bernie is simply calling for what the architects of Medicare had in mind all along. That architect was actually Robert M. Ball, and he faced the same opposition we're hearing today when he and then-President Lyndon B. Johnson wanted to expand Medicare to cover all Americans.
http://www.alternet.org/election-2016/why-insurance-companies-are-nervous-about-sanders-health-care-agenda?akid=14017.1943781.s_W_fC&rd=1&src=newsletter1051518&t=10
Bernie is simply calling for what the architects of Medicare had in mind all along. That architect was actually Robert M. Ball, and he faced the same opposition we're hearing today when he and then-President Lyndon B. Johnson wanted to expand Medicare to cover all Americans.
http://www.alternet.org/election-2016/why-insurance-companies-are-nervous-about-sanders-health-care-agenda?akid=14017.1943781.s_W_fC&rd=1&src=newsletter1051518&t=10
Friday, February 26, 2016
DOJ Wants to Arrest You for Terrorism for Not Liking Them
Originally shared by Alan Lovejoy
http://thefreethoughtproject.com/u-s-government-cage-liking/
http://thefreethoughtproject.com/u-s-government-cage-liking/
Thursday, February 25, 2016
Fluoride classified officially as a neurotoxin. We are drinking it. More: http://ow.ly/YJpl1
Originally shared by Neos Kosmos
Fluoride classified officially as a neurotoxin. We are drinking it. More: http://ow.ly/YJpl1
http://ow.ly/YJpl1
Fluoride classified officially as a neurotoxin. We are drinking it. More: http://ow.ly/YJpl1
http://ow.ly/YJpl1
Μικρό παιδί από την Συρία σε σκουπίδια της Τουρκίας με τα όργανα του αφαιρεμένα. ΑΥΤΗ Η ΦΩΤΟ ΔΕΝ ΕΠΑΙΞΕ ΠΟΥΘΕΝΑ.
Wednesday, February 24, 2016
A new home can be easily put together in less than four hours with the help of simple illustrated instructions.
Originally shared by The Plaid Zebra
A new home can be easily put together in less than four hours with the help of simple illustrated instructions.
http://www.theplaidzebra.com/ikea-designs-pre-made-tiny-homes
A new home can be easily put together in less than four hours with the help of simple illustrated instructions.
http://www.theplaidzebra.com/ikea-designs-pre-made-tiny-homes
Tuesday, February 23, 2016
Angela Merkel Is Destroying Europe
Originally shared by Martin Zeitler
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HE4-Rc9HXfo
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HE4-Rc9HXfo
Dear Good People
Originally shared by Dont Threaten Me
Dear Good People
For too long I have been correcting, as you may have also, with regards to the term NAZI or NAZISM, people, at times media, to stop using it inappropriately especially when Its referenced to the Reich (Germany) and National Socialism, which has
become a by-name for NAZISM, or "NAZI PARTY" ,
that "NEVER EXISTED".
The term NAZI is a Vile Jew reference used by the Jew to demonize National Socialism and the Reich and all too often it has become synonymous with Evil, Wicked, Racist, Supremacist and Cruel.
The term NAZI is in fact Synonymous with Evil, Wicked, Racist, Supremacist and Cruel, this does not apply to the Reich, it’s applicable only to, the Evil, Wicked, Racist, Supremacist, and Cruel Jews and Israel.
The Reich never represented or was known for such despicable protocols
This reference can only and must only be applied and referenced with Zionism
"NAZI-ZIONISM"
Let’s get used to it and apply it in your posts and correct where we can
those that have been indoctrinated in what this term means and all too often I ask the user to define the meaning and struggle to define it.
https://pbs.twimg.com/media/CYjP5fJUsAAFFQf.jpg
Dear Good People
For too long I have been correcting, as you may have also, with regards to the term NAZI or NAZISM, people, at times media, to stop using it inappropriately especially when Its referenced to the Reich (Germany) and National Socialism, which has
become a by-name for NAZISM, or "NAZI PARTY" ,
that "NEVER EXISTED".
The term NAZI is a Vile Jew reference used by the Jew to demonize National Socialism and the Reich and all too often it has become synonymous with Evil, Wicked, Racist, Supremacist and Cruel.
The term NAZI is in fact Synonymous with Evil, Wicked, Racist, Supremacist and Cruel, this does not apply to the Reich, it’s applicable only to, the Evil, Wicked, Racist, Supremacist, and Cruel Jews and Israel.
The Reich never represented or was known for such despicable protocols
This reference can only and must only be applied and referenced with Zionism
"NAZI-ZIONISM"
Let’s get used to it and apply it in your posts and correct where we can
those that have been indoctrinated in what this term means and all too often I ask the user to define the meaning and struggle to define it.
https://pbs.twimg.com/media/CYjP5fJUsAAFFQf.jpg
Stories of Organized Stalking and Electronic Harassment
Originally shared by LDA Eldin Ramic
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pjKmbFgzbtg&feature=share
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pjKmbFgzbtg&feature=share
TARGETED Teaser Trailer
Originally shared by LDA Eldin Ramic
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Os6npwzTU7M&feature=share
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Os6npwzTU7M&feature=share
Sunday, February 21, 2016
Nice combo
Originally shared by martel hinds
Nice combo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s-8tF1kSbBQ&feature=share
Nice combo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s-8tF1kSbBQ&feature=share
#Truth #TruthWarriors
Originally shared by Joshua Burton (Truth Warrior)
#Truth #TruthWarriors
http://www.naturalnews.com/053043_Gardasil_vaccine_ovarian_failure_scientific_fraud.html
#Truth #TruthWarriors
http://www.naturalnews.com/053043_Gardasil_vaccine_ovarian_failure_scientific_fraud.html
#Vaccines, Dead Doctors, and Depopulation: If You Haven’t Seen This #Video, You Should #Cancer
Originally shared by Disclose.tv
#Vaccines, Dead Doctors, and Depopulation: If You Haven’t Seen This #Video, You Should #Cancer
http://www.disclose.tv/news/vaccines_dead_doctors_and_depopulation_if_you_havent_seen_this_video_you_should/128170
#Vaccines, Dead Doctors, and Depopulation: If You Haven’t Seen This #Video, You Should #Cancer
http://www.disclose.tv/news/vaccines_dead_doctors_and_depopulation_if_you_havent_seen_this_video_you_should/128170
U.S. GOVERNMENT AND TOP MEXICAN DRUG CARTEL EXPOSED AS PARTNERS
Originally shared by H George Tavakoli
U.S. GOVERNMENT AND TOP MEXICAN DRUG CARTEL EXPOSED AS PARTNERS
SOURCE: THE NEW AMERICAN
U.S. Government and Top Mexican Drug Cartel Exposed as Partners
For over a decade, under multiple administrations, the U.S. government had a secret agreement with the ruthless Mexican Sinaloa drug cartel that allowed it to operate with impunity, an in-depth investigation by a leading Mexican newspaper confirmed this week. In exchange for information and assistance in quashing competing criminal syndicates, the Bush and Obama administrations let the Sinaloa cartel import tons of drugs into the United States while wiping out Sinaloa competitors and ensuring that its leaders would not be prosecuted for their long list of major crimes. Other revelations also point strongly to massive but clandestine U.S. government involvement in drug trafficking.
Relying on over 100 interviews with current and former government functionaries on both sides of the border, as well as official documents from the U.S. and Mexican governments, Mexico’s El Universal concluded that the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), and the U.S. Justice Department had secretly worked with Mexican drug lords. The controversial conspiring led to increased violence across Mexico, where many tens of thousands have been murdered in recent years, the newspaper found after its year-long probe. The U.S. agents and their shady deals with Mexican drug lords even sparked what the paper called a “secret war” inside Mexico.
The newspaper’s investigation also confirmed long-held suspicions that U.S. authorities were signing secret agreements with Mexican drug cartels — especially Sinaloa, which CIA operatives have said was a favorite for use in achieving geo-political objectives. Supposedly without the knowledge or approval of officials in Mexico, ICE and DEA, with a green light from Washington, D.C., made deals with criminal bosses allowing them to avoid prosecution for a vast crime spree that has included mass murder, corruption, bribery, drug trafficking, extortion, and more. In exchange, cartel leaders simply had to help U.S. officials eliminate their competitors — certainly a win-win scenario for crime bosses who prefer to operate without competition or fear of prosecution.
As The New American first reported in early 2011, a high-ranking operative with the Sinaloa cartel had outlined elements of the criminal agreements with U.S. authorities in official court documents. “The government of the United States and its various agencies have a long history of providing benefits, permission, and immunity to criminals and their organizations to commit crimes, including murder, in exchange for receiving information against other criminals and other organizations,” trafficker Jesus Vicente “El Vicentillo” Zambada-Niebla argued in U.S. court filings cited by El Universal. The New American has also reported extensively on the Zambada-Niebla case and what it reveals.
Experts quoted in the Mexican paper echoed other analysts who have spoken out in recent years, saying that the U.S. government scheming handed the Sinaloa cartel de facto status as the primary powerhouse. In fact, during the period when El Universal says the relationship between American officials and Sinaloa chieftains was most active — 2006 through 2012 — drug war-fueled violence in Mexico surged to unprecedented levels. There are numerous indications that despite official denials, top Mexican officials may have been aware of the schemes, or even involved in them.
Also part of the U.S. government deal with Sinaloa, analysts and Zambada-Niebla have said, was the Obama administration’s “Fast and Furious” gun-running program to arm Mexican cartels at U.S. taxpayer expense. Most recently, a whistleblower from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF) said that U.S. Border Patrol agent Brian Terry, killed with a Fast and Furious gun, was murdered by criminals working for the FBI. “It is clear that some of the weapons were deliberately allowed by the FBI and other government representatives to end up in the hands of the Sinaloa Cartel,” stated a motion filed in U.S. court by Zambada-Niebla’s defense team, adding that the U.S. government has documents showing that the weapons were provided by authorities pursuant to the agreement with Sinaloa.
According to former officials and drug kingpins, the agreements between Sinaloa and Washington also allowed the criminal empire to ship multi-ton quantities of hard drugs across the border into the United States. In all, El Universal said there had been at least 50 meetings in Mexico between U.S. government agents and senior Sinaloa bosses, along with many more phone calls and e-mails. The criminal syndicate’s leaders “were given carte blanche to continue to smuggle tons of illicit drugs into Chicago and the rest of the United States and were also protected by the United States government from arrest and prosecution,” Zambada-Niebla’s court filings state, adding that the U.S. government has the documents proving it. “Indeed, United States government agents aided the leaders of the Sinaloa Cartel.”
Unsurprisingly, none of the American federal agencies implicated in the machinations would comment on the revelations. However, citing court documents and official records it published online — as well as numerous interviews with federal agents, convicts, and analysts — the paper was able to conclusively confirm what experts and even officials have been arguing for years: The U.S. government is deeply intertwined with the drug trade. It was not clear what statutory or constitutional authority Washington, D.C., believes would authorize its functionaries to participate in, protect, and facilitate wanton criminal activity.
Mexican authorities, meanwhile, were reportedly kept largely out of the loop surrounding DEA meetings and agreements with top leaders in Mexico’s most notorious criminal syndicates. Officials in Mexico also claimed to be in the dark about the Obama administration's program to arm the cartels with U.S. weapons. According to analysts quoted in the El Universal report, if it is true that Mexico City was unaware, that only adds to the troubling implications of the unlawful scheming between U.S. officials and criminal bosses from Mexico and Colombia to Afghanistan and Southeast Asia.
Among other concerns, experts highlighted violations of human rights, infringements on the sovereignty of other nations, and more. It also helped fuel the devastating violence that has plagued the nation and claimed the lives of between 50,000 and 100,000 people in less than a decade. If Mexican authorities in fact approved the U.S. government’s drug-running schemes in Mexico, they broke the law, too, legal experts told the paper, saying the Mexican Constitution could not be trumped by bilateral agreements or anything else.
The latest revelations in the El Universal report came just days after the emergence of more explosive information implicating the CIA in drug-trafficking yet again. In an investigative article for Narco News entitled “DEA Case Threatens to Expose US Government-Sanctioned Drug-Running,” veteran drug-war journalist Bill Conroy highlights another U.S. government investigation that, perhaps inadvertently, ended up implicating the infamous American intelligence agency in major cocaine trafficking operations once more. Citing official documents and numerous U.S. officials, the piece also notes that CIA-sponsored drug running has been a persistent and ongoing problem.
In fact, it would not be the first time that the DEA has stumbled on major CIA drug-running operations. Even former DEA chief Robert Bonner, during an explosive interview with CBS, revealed that his agency had learned that the U.S. intelligence outfit unlawfully imported a ton of cocaine into the United States in cooperation with the Venezuelan government. According to the agency’s inspector general, the CIA was indeed working with traffickers but received a “waiver” from the Justice Department purporting to allow the government crime spree to remain secret. More recently, a Mexican official accused the CIA of “managing” the global drug trade.
The Mexican investigation follows decades of explosive revelations and accusations, many documented by The New American, suggesting that Washington, D.C., plays a crucial role in facilitating the international drug trade. In fact, more than a few officials, drug lords, and analysts have even said that the CIA and other secretive U.S. and foreign agencies actually run the global trade in narcotics, laundering the profits, and more. The DEA was even investigated by Congress last year for helping to launder drug money, while the ATF was exposed supplying U.S. weapons to Mexican cartels. ICE has reportedly been allowing cartel hit men into the United States to murder. So far, none of the high-ranking officials responsible for the lawlessness has truly been held accountable.
Photo shows alleged hit men working for Sinaloa drug cartel along with grenades, automatic weapons, and body armor: AP Images
Alex Newman, a foreign correspondent for The New American, is normally based in Europe after growing up in Latin America, including seven years in Mexico. anewman@thenewamerican.com.
Trafficker: U.S. Feds Aided Mexican Drug Cartel Mexican Drug Trafficker Says He Worked With Feds Stratfor Sources: U.S. Troops in Mexico as Feds Aid Cartels Congress Probes DEA Drug Money Laundering Scheme
http://www.blacklistednews.com/U.S._Government_and_Top_Mexican_Drug_Cartel_Exposed_as_Partners/32026/0/38/38/Y/M.html
Mexican Diplomat Says America Pretty Much Invited The Sinaloa Drug Cartel Across The Border: National Drug Threat Assessment The U.N. estimates that the U.S. narcotics market is worth about $60 billion annually.
Leaked emails from the private U.S. security firm Stratfor cite a Mexican diplomat who says the U.S. government works with Mexican cartels to traffic drugs into the United States and has sided with the Sinaloa cartel in an attempt to limit the violence in Mexico.Many people have doubted the quality of Stratfor’s intelligence, but the information from MX1—a Mexican foreign service officer who doubled as a confidential source for Stratfor—seems to corroborate recent claims about U.S. involvement in the drug war in Mexico.
Most notably, the reports from MX1 line up with assertions by a Sinaloa cartel insider that cartel boss Joaquin Guzman is a U.S. informant, the Sinaloa cartel was “given carte blanche to continue to smuggle tons of illicit drugs into Chicago,” and Operation Fast and Furious was part of an agreement to finance and arm the Sinaloa cartel in exchange for information used to take down rival cartels.
An email with the subject “Re: From MX1 — 2” sent Monday, April 19, 2010, to Stratfor vice president of intelligence Fred Burton says:
I think the US sent a signal that could be construed as follows:
“To the [Juárez] and Sinaloa cartels: Thank you for providing our market with drugs over the years. We are now concerned about your perpetration of violence, and would like to see you stop that. In this regard, please know that Sinaloa is bigger and better than [the Juárez cartel]. Also note that [Ciudad Juárez] is very important to us, as is the whole border. In this light, please talk amongst yourselves and lets all get back to business. Again, we recognise that Sinaloa is bigger and better, so either [the Juárez cartel] gets in line or we will mess you up.”
In sum, I have a gut feeling that the US agencies tried to send a signal telling the cartels to negotiate themselves. They unilaterally declared a winner, and this is unprecedented, and deserves analysis.
Bill Conroy of Narco News reports that MX1′s description matches the publicly available information on Fernando de la Mora Salcedo — a Mexican foreign service officer who studied law at the University of New Mexico and served at the Mexican Consulates in El Paso, Texas, and Phoenix.
In a June 13, 2010, email with the subject “Re: Get follow up from mx1? Thx,” MX1 states that U.S. and Mexican law enforcement sent their “signal” by discretely brokering a deal with cartels in Tijuana, just south of San Diego, Calif., which reduced the violence in the area considerably.
It is not so much a message for the Mexican government as it is for the Sinaloa cartel and [the Juárez cartel] themselves. Basically, the message they want to send out is that Sinaloa is winning and that the violence is unacceptable. They want the CARTELS to negotiate with EACH OTHER. The idea is that if they can do this, violence will drop and the governments will allow controlled drug trades.
The email went on to say that “the major routes and methods for bulk shipping into the US” from Ciudad Juárez, right across the border from El Paso, Texas, ”have already been negotiated with US authorities” and that large shipments of drugs from the Sinaloa cartel “are OK with the Americans.”
In July a Mexican state government spokesman told Al Jazeera that the CIA and other international security forces “don’t fight drug traffickers” as much as “try to manage the drug trade.” A mid-level Mexican official told Al Jazeera that based on discussions he’s had with U.S. officials working in Ciudad Juárez, the allegations were true.
WikiLeaks has published 2,878 out of what it says is a cache of 5 million internal Stratfor emails (dated between July 2004 and December 2011) obtained by the hacker collective Anonymous around Christmas.
SEE ALSO: Reports Of Mexican Special Forces Serving As ‘Death Squads’ In The Drug War >
Follow Business Insider Australia on Facebook and Twitter
http://www.businessinsider.com.au/stratfor-the-us-works-with-cartels-2012-9
TWO AND A HALF YEARS AFTER a terrible Lone Gunman Massacre at a school in DUNBLANE, SCOTLAND, Prince Charles pays a...
Originally shared by H George Tavakoli
TWO AND A HALF YEARS AFTER a terrible Lone Gunman Massacre at a school in DUNBLANE, SCOTLAND, Prince Charles pays a visit to Glencoe and has a meal with BBC millionaire pedo-sex criminal JIMMY SAVILE. A man who looks remarkably similar to THOMAS HAMILTON who murdered 16 children and a schoolteacher in cold blood is part of the lunch party. The Dunblane massacre ENDED PRIVATE HANDGUN OWNERSHIP in the UK. Documents and records about this massacre have been SEALED FOR ONE HUNDRED YEARS. Is this man [pictured right] the same person as THOMAS HAMILTON, the Dunblane Killer? Please come forward if you have any information.
The United Nations Admits Chemtrails Are Real
Originally shared by H George Tavakoli
The United Nations Admits Chemtrails Are Real
CHEMTRAILS. USA Government, ADMITS secretly SPRAYING POISON on us!!!: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=THVippf7wr4
Govt. Admits Chemtrails/Toxins Sprayed On It's Citizens -Mainstream Report: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oT3Xd75FbEg
http://yournewswire.com/the-united-nations-admits-chemtrails-are-real/
The United Nations Admits Chemtrails Are Real
CHEMTRAILS. USA Government, ADMITS secretly SPRAYING POISON on us!!!: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=THVippf7wr4
Govt. Admits Chemtrails/Toxins Sprayed On It's Citizens -Mainstream Report: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oT3Xd75FbEg
http://yournewswire.com/the-united-nations-admits-chemtrails-are-real/
There Were 88 Media Companies... Now There Are 6
Originally shared by New World Order.com
There Were 88 Media Companies... Now There Are 6
These are the 6 media companies that exist today. There used to be 88. These 6 all get their news from Reuters and the Associated Press. Reuters owns the AP and Rothschilds own Reuters. That means a gadzillionaire controls everything that you will read or see on TV. You can be programmed by this guy. Everything you believe, do, feel, want to buy, and want to TOLERATE is programmed into you. You are a mushroom. You live in the dark and are fed nothing but #@&(.
The following information is in circulation on the net. The originating source is not known, nor have all the statements below been fully verified. It is naive not to think that the office guest chairs at the corporate offices of media moguls are NOT filled with politicians, or those who sway politicians, but this overview is shocking to even a cynic. However, the general overview provided appears to be accurate. (from Rense.com)
GENERAL ELECTRIC (donated 1.1 million to GW Bush for his 2000
election campaign)
Television Holdings
NBC: includes 13 stations, 28% of US households.
* NBC Network News: The Today Show, Nightly News with Tom Brokaw,
Meet the Press, Dateline NBC, NBC News at Sunrise.
* CNBC business television; MSNBC 24-hour cable and Internet news
service (co-owned by NBC and Microsoft); Court TV (co-owned with Time
Warner), Bravo (50%), A&E (25%), History Channel (25%).
The "MS" in MSNBC means microsoft. The same Microsoft that donated
2.4 million to get GW bush elected. Gates is currently richest man in the world. I saw him on Charlie Rose and he seems to be a very good guy, but hey, I'm just a chick. What do I know?
Other Holdings
* GE Consumer Electronics.
* GE Power Systems: produces turbines for nuclear reactors and power
plants.
* GE Plastics: produces military hardware and nuclear power equipment.
* GE Transportation Systems: runs diesel and electric trains.
=====================================
WESTINGHOUSE / CBS INC.
Westinghouse Electric Company, part of the Nuclear Utilities Business Group of British Nuclear Fuels (BNFL) Whos #1 on the Board of Directors? None other than: Frank Carlucci (of the Carlyle Group)
Television Holdings
* CBS: includes 14 stations and over 200 affiliates in the US.
* CBS Network News: 60 minutes, 48 hours, CBS Evening News with Dan
Rather, CBS Morning News, Up to the Minute.
* Country Music Television, The Nashville Network, 2 regional sports
networks.
* Group W Satellite Communications.
Other Holdings
* Westinghouse Electric Company: provides services to the nuclear
power industry.
* Westinghouse Government Environmental Services Company: disposes
of nuclear and hazardous wastes. Also operates 4 government-owned nuclear
power plants in the US.
* Energy Systems: provides nuclear power plant design and
maintenance.
==================================
VIACOM INTERNATIONAL INC
Television Holdings
* Paramount Television, Spelling Television, MTV, VH-1, Showtime,
The Movie Channel, UPN (joint owner), Nickelodeon, Comedy Central, Sundance
Channel (joint owner), Flix.
* 20 major market US stations.
Media Holdings
* Paramount Pictures, Paramount Home Video, Blockbuster Video,
Famous Players Theatres, Paramount Parks.
* Simon & Schuster Publishing.
==================================
DISNEY / ABC / CAP (donated 640 thousand to GW's 2000 campaign)
Television Holdings
* ABC: includes 10 stations, 24% of US households.
* ABC Network News: Prime Time Live, Nightline, 20/20, Good Morning
America.
* ESPN, Lifetime Television (50%), as well as minority holdings in
A&E, History Channel and E!
* Disney Channel/Disney Television, Touchtone Television.
Media Holdings
* Miramax, Touchtone Pictures.
* Magazines: Jane, Los Angeles Magazine, W, Discover.
* 3 music labels, 11 major local newspapers.
* Hyperion book publishers.
* Infoseek Internet search engine (43%).
Other Holdings
* Sid R. Bass (major shares) crude oil and gas.
* All Disney Theme Parks, Walt Disney Cruise Lines.
===================================
TIME-WARNER TBS AOL (donated 1.6 million to GW's 2000 campaign)
America Online (AOL) acquired Time Warnerthe largest merger in
corporate history.
Television Holdings
* CNN, HBO, Cinemax, TBS Superstation, Turner Network Television,
Turner Classic Movies, Warner Brothers Television, Cartoon Network, Sega
Channel, TNT, Comedy Central (50%), E! (49%), Court TV (50%).
* Largest owner of cable systems in the US with an estimated 13
million subscribers.
Media Holdings
* HBO Independent Productions, Warner Home Video, New Line Cinema,
Castle Rock, Looney Tunes, Hanna-Barbera.
* Music: Atlantic, Elektra, Rhino, Sire, Warner Bros. Records, EMI,
WEA, Sub Pop (distribution) = the world's largest music company.
* 33 magazines including Time, Sports Illustrated, People, In Style,
Fortune, Book of the Month Club, Entertainment Weekly, Life, DC Comics
(50%), and MAD Magazine.
Other Holdings
* Sports: The Atlanta Braves, The Atlanta Hawks, World Championship
Wrestling.
====================================
NEWS CORPORATION LTD. / FOX NETWORKS (Rupert Murdoch) (
Television Holdings
* Fox Television: includes 22 stations, 50% of US households.
* Fox International: extensive worldwide cable and satellite
networks include British Sky Broadcasting (40%); VOX, Germany (49.9%); Canal
Fox, Latin America; FOXTEL, Australia (50%); STAR TV, Asia; IskyB, India;
Bahasa Programming Ltd., Indonesia (50%); and News Broadcasting, Japan
(80%).
* The Golf Channel (33%).
Media Holdings
* Twentieth Century Fox, Fox Searchlight.
* 132 newspapers (113 in Australia alone) including the New York
Post, the London Times and The Australian.
* 25 magazines including TV Guide and The Weekly Standard.
* HarperCollins books.
Other Holdings
* Sports: LA Dodgers, LA Kings, LA Lakers, National Rugby League.
* Ansett Australia airlines, Ansett New Zealand airlines.
* Rupert Murdoch: Board of Directors, Philip Morris (USA).
(Phillip Morris donated 2.9 million to George W Bush in 2000)
Sir Evelyn Rothschild, above hopes that you do not NOTE THAT their MEDIA FAVORED the CIA BUSH FAMILY, BOTH GENERATIONS. (ENRON RODE IN ON THEIR BACK AND STARTED THE MELTDOWN.)
http://www.rense.com/general90/media.htm
As a veteran who was exposed to this, I can tell you first hand that this was one of the most noxious things a human...
Originally shared by H George Tavakoli
As a veteran who was exposed to this, I can tell you first hand that this was one of the most noxious things a human being can encounter!
http://thefreethoughtproject.com/dick-cheney-poisoned-hundreds-troops-fought-iraq/
As a veteran who was exposed to this, I can tell you first hand that this was one of the most noxious things a human being can encounter!
http://thefreethoughtproject.com/dick-cheney-poisoned-hundreds-troops-fought-iraq/
Weather Modification and Chemtrail
Originally shared by H George Tavakoli
Weather Modification and Chemtrail
Stuff this in the face of the non believer .. watch them squirm .. :)
If you don't believe in Chemtrails. .. you must have a mental disorder... or you work for someone and you must be a paid troll.
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:26:14 PM
Whileweathermodification
projects have been operational for nearly 25 years )
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 7:50:28 AM
DearDr. Beckman: Weathermodification, although a relatively
youngscience, hasovertheyearsstimulatedgreatinterestwithinthe
scientific, commercial, governmental, andagricultural communities.
Suchresponses are readilyunderstandable. Weather-relateddisasters
andhazardsaffectvirtuallyallAmericansandannuallycauseuntold
humansufferingandlossoflifeandresultinbillionsofdollarsofeconomicloss
to crops andother property. Whileweathermodification
projects have been operational for nearly 25 years and have been
showntohavesignificantpotentialforpreventing, diverting, moderating,
oramelioratingtheadverseeffectsofsuchweatherrelateddisasters
andhazards, Iamgreatly concerned regarding the lack of a
coordinated Federal weathermodification policy anda coordinated
andcomprehensive programfor weathermodification research and
development. Thisfactis allthemoredisturbinginviewofthemanifestneeds,
andbenefits, socialandeconomic, thatcanbeassociatedwith
weathermodificationactivities. ThesedeficienciesinourFederalorganizationalstructurehaveresultedinalessthanoptimalreturnonour
investmentsinweathermodificationactivitiesandafailure, withfew
exceptions, to recognize thatmuchadditional research anddevelopmentneedsto
be carried out before weathermodification becomesa
trulyoperationaltool.
Reportsandstudiesconductedbysuchdiverseorganizationsas the
NationalAcademyofSciences, the NationalAdvisory Committeeon
Oceans and Atmosphere, the General AccountingOffice, and the
DomesticCouncilhavehighlightedthelackofacomprehensiveFederal
weathermodification policyandresearchanddevelopment program.
Hearingsthat I chairedinFebruaryofthisyearreinforcedmyconcernsregardingthewisdomofourcontinuedfailure
to implementa
nationalpolicyonthisveryimportantissue.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:30:55 PM
Notallweathermodificationactivities, however, havebeenorcanbe
designedto benefit everyone, and someintentional operations have
beenused, or are perceivedto have beenused, as a weaponofwar
toimpedethe mobility ortactical readiness of an enemy. )
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:31:40 PM
Furthermore,
environmentalchangeisalso effectedunintentionallyandwithoutanypurposeatall,
asmaninadvertentlymodifiestheweatherand
climate, whetherforbetterorworsescientistsarenotcertain, through
activitiessuchas clearing largetractsofland, buildingurbanareas,
andcombustionoffossilfuels.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:32:14 PM
h)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:32:33 PM
The
modernperiodinweathermodificationisaboutthreedecadesold, datingfromeventsin
1946, whenSchaeferandLangmuiroftheGeneral
Electric Co. demonstratedthat a cloudof supercooled waterdroplets
couldbetransformedintoicecrystalswhenseededwithdryice. Soon
afterwarditwasdiscovered thatfine particles of puresilver iodide,
withcrystal structure similar to that ofice, wereeffective artificial
ice nuclei, andthat seedingcloudswithsuchparticles could produce
ice crystals attemperaturesjustbelowfreezing. )
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:32:55 PM
Bythe1950's, manyexperimentalandoperationalweathermodification
projects were underway; )
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:34:32 PM
Forexample, cold fogclearingisnowconsideredtobeoperational,
while, atthe other extreme, the abatementof
severestormssuchashurricanesremainsintheinitialresearchphase.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:36:27 PM
Thefollowingsummaryprovidesareasonablyaccurate assessment
ofthecurrentstatusofweathermodificationtechnology
:
1.
Theonlyroutine operational projects are for clearing coldfog.
Research onwarmfoghasyieldedsomeusefulknowledge andgood
models, buttheresultingtechnologiesaresocostlythattheyareusable
mainlyformilitarypurposesandverybusyairports.
2. Severallongrunningefforts to increasewintersnowpackbyseedingcloudsinthemountainssuggestthatprecipitationcanbeincreased
bysome15percentoverwhatwouldhavehappened"naturally."
3.
Adecadeandahalfofexperiencewithseedingwintercloudson
theU.S. westcoastandinIsrael, andsummercloudsin Florida, also
suggesta10- to15-percentincreaseover"natural" rainfall. Hypotheses
andtechniquesfromtheworkinoneareaarenotdirectlytransferable
tootherareas, butwill behelpfulindesigningcomparableexperiments
withbroadlysimilarcloudsystems.
4.
Numerouseffortstoincreaserainbyseedingsummercloudsinthe
centralandwesternpartsoftheUnitedStateshaveleftmanyquestions
unanswered.
Amajorexperimenttotrytoanswerthem—fortheHigh
Plainsarea—isnowinitsearlystages.
5.
Itisscientificallypossibletoopenholesinwintertimecloudlayers
byseedingthem. Increasingsunshineanddecreasingenergyconsmptionmaybe
especially relevant in the northeastern quadrantof the
UnitedStates.
0.
Some$10millionisspentbyprivateandlocal publicsponsorsfor
cloud-seedingefforts, but these projects arc not designedasscientific
experiments andit is difficult to say for sure that operational cloud
seedingcausestheclaimedresults.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:36:59 PM
7. Knowledgeabouthurricanesisimprovingwithgoodmodelsof
theirbehavior. Buttheexperienceinmodifyingthatbehaviorisprimitivesofar.
Itisinherentlydifficulttofindenoughtestcases, especially
since experimentation on typhoonsin the WesternPacific has been
blockedforthetimebeingbyinternationalpolitical objections.
8.
AlthoughtheSovietsandsomeU.S. privateoperatorsclaimsome
successinsuppressinghailbyseedingclouds, ourunderstandingofthe
physical processes that create hailis still weak. TheonemajorU.S.
held experiment increased our understanding of severe storms, but
otherwiseprovedmostlythedimensionsofwhatwedonotyetknow.
9.
Therehavebeenmanyefforts to suppress lightning byseeding
thunderstorms. Ourknowledgeoftheprocessesinvolvedisfair, butthe
technologyisstillfarfromdemonstrated, andtheU.S. ForestService
hasrecentlyabandonedfurtherlightningexperiments.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:38:15 PM
Forover 30 years bothlegislative andexecutive branches of the
Federal Governmenthavebeen involved in anumberof aspects of
weathermodification. Since 1947about110weathermodificationbills
pertainingtoresearchsupport, operations, grants, policystudies, regulations,
liabilities, activityreporting, establishmentofpanelsandcommittees,
andinternational concernshavebeenintroducedintheCon-
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:38:24 PM
gress. )
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:38:41 PM
Sixpubliclawsspecificallydealingwithweathermodificationhave
beenenactedsince1953, )
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:39:18 PM
Congressinitiated one majorFederal research programthrough
a write-in to an appropriationsbill; this program
regularlyreceivessupportthroughadditional appropriationsbeyond
recommendedOMBfundinglevels.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:39:35 PM
PublicLaw92-205, ofDecember18,
1971, )
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:39:43 PM
TheNationalWeatherModification Policy Actof 1976
(PublicLaw94-490))
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:41:38 PM
TheICAS, establishedin 1959
bytheformerFederal CouncilforScienceandTechnology, provides
advice onmattersrelated to atmosphericscience in general andhas
alsobeenthe principal coordinatingmechanismfor Federalresearch
inweathermodification.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:45:09 PM
In1975, 1976, and1977, respectively, therewere58, 61, and88nonfederally
supported weathermodification projects, nearlyall operational,
conducted throughouttheUnitedStates. )
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:45:23 PM
i)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:45:41 PM
Eighty-five percent of
allprojects intheUnitedStatesduring1975werecarriedoutwestof
KansasCity, with the largest numberin California. Inthat State
there were11 proipets in each of the vears 1975 and1976, and20
projectsduring1977)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:46:58 PM
In 197G, 6 of the 10 major companies having
substantialnumbersof contracts received about$2.7 million for operationsintheUnitedStates,
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:48:31 PM
h)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:48:40 PM
theWorldMeteorological Organization(WMO) in
1975instigatedasystemofreportingandofmaintainingaregisteron
suchactivities. Underthisarrangement25 nations reported weather
modificationprojects during1976, and16 countriesprovidedsimilar
informationin 1975. )
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:49:18 PM
Inadditiontotheproblemsofpotentialdamagetocountriesthrough
commercialor experimental weathermodificationactivities, another
growingareaofconcernisthatweathermodificationwillbeusedfor
hostile purposesandthat the futurewill bring weatherwarfarebetweennations.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:49:49 PM
TheUnitedStates has already been involvedin one
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:50:04 PM
suchinstance duringthe Vietnamwarwhenattempts weremadeto
impedetrafficbyincreasingrainfallduringthemonsoonseason. Inthe
future, eventhe perception that weathermodification techniques are
available orin use couldleadtoanincrease ininternationaltensions.
Natural droughtin a region, or anyother natural disaster will be
suspectorblamedonanenemy.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 5:52:00 PM
Issues of liability fordamagemayarise whendrought, flooding,
orothersevere wealherphenomenaoccurfollowingattemptstomodify
the weather. Suchissues include causation, nuisance, strict liability,
trespass, negligence, andcharges of pollution of the air and water
throughintroduction ofartificial nucleants. )
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 6:01:03 PM
Inparticular, attentionis
called to appendix D, whichcontains excerpts dealing with weather
modificationfromthestatutesofthe29Statesinwhichsuchactivities
areinsomewayaddressedbyState law, andto appendix E, which
providesthenamesandaffiliationsofindividualswithinthe50States
whoarecognizantofweathermodificationactivitiesandinterestswithintherespectiveStates.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 11:00:52 PM
Thefollowing chronologyof"critical events" relating to weather
modification policy, compiled byFleagle. unfolds only someof the
majoreventsandactivity periodswhichhaveoccurredsincethehistoricdiscoveriesof1946
:
50
1946: Schaeferdemonstratedseeding: withdryice.
1947: Vonnegutdemonstratedseedingwithsilveriodide.
1947-55: IrvingLangmuiradvertised weathermodifieaton widely andaggressively.
1947-53: General Electric field experiments ("Cirrus") extended evidence
that clouds can hedeliherately modified, butfailed to demonstratelargeeffects.
1948-50: Weather Bureau Cloud Physics Project on cumulus andstratiform
cloudsresultedinconservativeestimateofeffects.
1948-52: Commercialoperationsgrewtocover10 percentofUnitedStates.
1950: Reportof Panel on MeteorologyofDefense Department'sResearch and
Development Board (Haurwitz, Chairman) wasadverseto Langmuir'sclaims.
1953: Public Law83-256 established President's Advisory Committee on
WeatherControl.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 11:01:02 PM
1953-54: "Petterssen" Advisory Committeeorganizedfield tests on stormsystems,
convective clouds, andcold and warmfog (supported by the Office of
Naval Research, the Air Force, the ArmySignal Corps, and the Weather
Bureau). Thesestatistically controlled experimentsyielded results which have
beensubstantiallyunchangedinsubsequenttests.
1957: ReportofAdvisoryCommittee(Orville, Chairman) concludedthattests
showed15percentincreaseinorographicwinterprecipitation.
1957: Majorcutin research supportacross theboard by DefenseDepartment
sendsmajorperturbationthroughresearchstructure.
195S: Public Law85-510 assigned lead agencyresponsibility to the National
Science Foundation (NSF).
1959: Commercial operations had diminishedto cover about onepercent of
theUnitedStates.
1961: FirsthurricaneseedingunderProjectStormfury.
1961: Bureauof Reclamationauthorized by Congressto conduct researchin
weathermodification.
1961: RANDreport on weathermodificationemphasizedcomplexityofatmosphericprocessesandinterrelationofmodificationandprediction.
1962-70: Randomizedfield experiments established magnitudeof orographic
effects.
1964: Preliminary report of National Academyof Sciences/Committee on
AtmosphericSciences (NAS/CAS) roused angerofprivateoperatorsandstimulatedtheevaluationofoperationaldata.
1964-present: DepartmentoftheInteriorpushedthecaseforoperationalseedingtoaugmentwatersupplies.
1966: NAS/CASreport 1S50laid the basis for expanded Federal programs.
1966: ReportofNSFSpecialCommissiononWeatherModificationandanNSF
symposiumcalledattentiontosocial, economic, andlegalaspects.
1966: Interdepartmental Committeefor AtmosphericSciences (ICAS) report
fNewell, Chairman) proposed expandedFederal supportto $90million by1970.
1966-68: Efforts of the DepartmentsofCommerceandInterior to gain lead
agencystatuswereunsuccessful.
1967: ICAS recommendedthat Commercebe designated as lead agency.
1967: S. 2916, assigning lead agencyresponsibility to theDepartmentofCommerce:
passedtheSenatebutdidnotbecomelaw.
1967-72: MilitaryoperationalprogramsconductedinVietnam.
1968: PublicLaw90-407removedtheNSFmandateas lead agency.
1968: DetrimentaleffectsofacidrainreportedfromSweden.
1969: PublicLaw91-190 (National EnvironmentalPolicy Act) required impactstatements.
1970; MassachusettsInstitute ofTechnology StudyofCritical Environmental
Problemscalledattentiontoinadvertenteffectsonclimate.
1970: StratosphericcontaminationbySST'ssuggested.
1971: DepartmentsofCommerceandInteriorcarriedoutoperationalprograms
inOklahomaandFlorida.
1971: Public Law92-205 required filing of reports of non-Federal weather
modificationactivitieswiththeDepartmentofCommerce.
1971: InternationalStudyofMan'sImpactonClimateraisedthisissueto internationallevel.
1971: NAS/CASreport onpriorities for the1970'semphasizedneedfor attention
tomanagementandpolicyproblemsof weathermodification.
1971: Federal Council for Science and Technology approved seven national
projectsundervariousleadagencies.
1971-72: First technological assessmentsof weathermodification projects are
favorabletooperationalprograms.
1971-74: Climateimpactassessmentprogram( CTAP) ofDepartmentofTransportation
indicates potentially serious consequencesof largeSSTfleet but suggestswaystoamelioratetheproblem.
1972: Failureof Sovietwheatcrop and droughtin Sahel emphasizedcritical
needforunderstandingclimateandthevalueofeffectiveweathermodification.
1973: Weathermodificationbudgetreducedbyimpoundmentfrom$25.4 million
to$20.2million.
1973: Fivenationalprojectsdeferredorterminated.
1973: NAS/CASreport on weatherandclimate modification confirmedearlier
conclusionsandrecommendedleadagencystatusforNOAA.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 11:01:27 PM
1974: Stratosphericcontaminationbyfreonreported.
1974: Domestic Council organized panels in climate change and weather
modification.
1974: General Accounting Office report on weather modification criticized
weathermodification program andpointed to needfor lead agency.
1974: DefenseDepartmentreleased information onoperationsin Vietnam.
1974: TheUnitedStatesandthe U.S.S.R. agreedtoajointstatementintended
"toovercomethedangersoftheuseofenvironmentalmodification techniquesfor
militarypurposes."
1975: WorldMeteorologicalOrganizationExecutiveCommitteeproposedcumulusexperimentperhapsinAfricaorIran.
1975: DepartmentofTransportationCIAPreport indicated that afleet of 500
SST'swoulddepleteozonesignificantly, butsuggestedthatcleaner enginescould
bedeveloped.
1976: Chinese disapprovalresultedin abandoningplans for Stormfuryin the
westernPacific.
1976: Hearingsheld on threeweathermodificationbills by Senate Commerce
Committee.
1976: TheNationalWeatherModification Policy Actof 1976 (PublicLaw94-
859) enactedrequiringstudyofweathermodification.
1977: Exceptionallydry winterin the weststimulates State operational programsintendedtoincreasemountainsnowpack.
SincethecompletionofFleagle'slistaboveinMarch 1977, at least
threeotheractivitiesofequivalentsignificanceoughttobenoted
:
1977: TheU.S. DepartmentofCommerceWeatherModificationAdvisoryBoard
establishedinApril1977andinitiated amajorstudyonarecommendednational
policyandFederalprogramof researchin weathermodification, in accordance
withrequirementstobefulfilledbytheSecretaryofCommerceunderPublicLaw
94-490, theNationalWeatherModificationPolicyActof1976.
1977: TheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyapprovedatreatybanningenvironmentalmodificationactivitiesforhostilepurposesonMay18,1977;
andthetreaty
openedforsignaturebythemembernations.
1978: TheReportof theCommerceDepartment'sWeatherModification AdvisoryBoardtransmittedthroughthe
SecretaryofCommercetothe Congress.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 11:02:44 PM
ThemostpronouncedeffectproducedbyProject Cirrusandsubsequentlysubstantiated
by a numberof tests byothers, wasthe clearing of paths through
supercooledstratus cloudlayersbymeansof seedingfromanairplane with dry
iceorwithsilver iodide. Whensuchcloudswerenottoothick, thesnowthatwas
artificiallynucleatedsweptallthevisibleparticlesoutofthecloud.
* *
Inone
ofthefirstflights,
*
thesupercooledparticlesinstratuscloudswereremoved
usingonly 12poundsofdryice distributed along a 14-mileline. Inlaterflights
evenmorespectacularresultswereachieved, documentedbygoodphotography.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
5/10/2015 11:03:24 PM
TheU.S. experiments of 1953-54
In1951theWeatherBureau, theArmy, theNavy, andtheAirForce
appointed an advisory group, chaired byDr. Sverre Petterssen of
the University of Chicago, under whose advice and guidance the
followingsixweathermodificationprojectswereinitiated
:
75
1. Seeding of extratropical cyclones, sponsored by the Office of
Naval Research and conducted byXewYorkUniversity.
2. Seedingof migratorycloud systemsassociated withfronts and
cyclones, conductedbytheWeatherBureau.
3. Treatmentofconnectiveclouds, supportedbytheAirForceand
conductedbytheUniversityofChicago.
4. Research onthe~dissipation of cold stratus andfog, conducted
bytheArmySignal Corps.
5. Studies of the physics ofice fogs, sponsored bythe AirForce
andconducted bythe Stanford ResearchInstitute.
6. Investigation of a specialwarmstratusandfogtreatmentsvstem,
sponsoredbytheArmyandconductedbyArthurD. Little, Inc.
Field experiments onthese projects werecarried outin 1953 and
1954, andreportswerepublishedunderthe auspices oftheAmerican
Meteorological Society in 195T.
)
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ProjectWhitetop
Accordingto Byers, perhapsthemostextensiveandmostsophisticated
weather modification experiment (at least upto the time of
Byers'historical reviewin 1973) wasa 5-yearprogramofsummer
convective cloud seeding in south-central Missouri, called Project
Whitetop. Conducted from 19G0 through 1964 bya group fromthe
University of Chicago, led byDr. Roscoe11. Braham, thepurposeof
Whitetop wasto settle with finality the question of whetheror not
summerconvective cloudsof theMidwestcouldbeseededwithsilver
iodide to enhanceorinitiate precipitation. )
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5/10/2015 11:05:16 PM
Hurricanemodification
InanearlierdiscussionoftheworkofLangmuirandhis
associates
underProjectCirrus, anattemptathurricanemodificationwasmentioned.
3Thehistoricalunfoldingofhurricaneresearch
in theUnited
Statesthereafterwillnotbereportedheresinceit isdiscussedin detail
inchapter5, underProjectStormfury, nowamajorweathermodification
researchprogramofthe National OceanicandAtmosphericAdministrationoftheU.
S. DepartmentofCommerce.
)
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5/10/2015 11:07:15 PM
Fleaglenotes thatbythe early 1950's, 10 percentof the landarea
of theUnitedStates was under commercial seeding operations and
$3 million to $5 million wasbeing expended annually byranchers,
towns, orchardists, publicutilities, andresort operators. Theextent
ofsuchcommercialoperationsrecededsharply, andbythelate 1950's
businesswasonly aboutone-tenth orlessthanithadbeena decade
earlier.
Asnotedabove, publicutilities wereamongthosewhocontinuedto
sponsorprojectsthroughoutthis period.
20
)
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Figure2.—Total area coverageandpercentofarea coveragefor the48cotermi'
nousStates of the UnitedStates by weathermodification operationsfor each
year, July 1950 through June1956. (From Final Report of the Advisory
CommitteeonWeatherControl, 1958.)
)
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TABLE1.—SUMMARYOFWEATHERMODIFICATIONACTIVITIESFROMFIELDOPERATORS'REPORTS, FISCALYEARS
1966, 1967, AND1968i(FROM NSF TENTH ANNUALREPORT OF WEATHERMODIFICATION, 1968)
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Figure3.—Weathermodificationprojectsinthe UnitedStatesduringfiscalyear
1968.(FromNSFTenthAnnualReportonweathermodification, 1968.)
)
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TABLE 1.—ASSESSMENT OF THECAPABILITIES FOR MODIFYING VARIOUS WEATHER ANDWEATHER-RELATED
NATURAL PHENOMENA, BASED ON THE OPINIONS OF10 METEOROLOGISTS
)
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TABLE 4.—WEATHER AND CLIMATE MODIFICATION ACTIVITIES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE SCALE OR
DIMENSIONS OF THE REGIONIN WHICH THE MODIFICATIONISATTEMPTED
[Information from Hartman, 19661
Scale Horizontal dimensions Examplesof modification processes
Microscale Lessthan 15km
Mesoscale 15to200km.
Macroscale Greaterthan 200 km.
Modificationofhumanmicroclimates.
Modificationof plant microclimates.
Evaporation suppression.
Fogdissipation.
Clouddissipation.
Hail prevention.
Precipitation throughindividual cloudmodification.
Precipitationfromcloud systems.
Hurricanemodification.
Modificationoftornadosystems.
Changes to global atmospheric circulation patterns.
Melting theArctic icecap.
Divertingoceancurrents.
)
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5/10/2015 11:14:24 PM
ThePanelnowconcludes onthebasis ofstatistical analysis of well-designed
field experimentsthat ice-nuclei seeding can sometimesleadto moreprecipitation,
can sometimes lead to less precipitation, andat other times the nuclei
havenoeffect, depending onthe meteorologicalconditions. Recentevidence has
suggested thatit is possible to specify those microphysical and mesophysical
properties of some cloud systems that determine their behavior following
artificialnucleation)
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5/10/2015 11:20:15 PM
Figure4.—Idealized model showingmeteorological conditions that should lead
to increased snowfallif clouds are seeded withsilver iodideparticles. (From
Weisbecker, 1974.)
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TABLE5.—LISTOFWINTEROROGRAPHICWEATHERMODIFICATIONPROJECTS, GIVINGSITESANDSEASONSOF
OPERATIONS, USEDIN STUDYTO DETERMINE GENERALIZED CLOUDSEEDING CRITERIA
[FromVardimanandMoore, 1977]
Project Site Seedingoperations
Bridger RangeProject(BGR) RockyMountains, Montana 1969-70to1971-72(3 seasons).
ClimaxProject(CMX) Rocky Mountains, Colorado 1960-61to 1969-70(10seasons).
Colorado River Basin Pilot Project Rocky Mountains, Colorado 1970-71to 1974-75(5 seasons).
(CRB).
Central Sierra Research Experiment Sierra Nevada, California 1968-69to 1972-73(5 seasons).
(CSR).
JemezMountainsProject(JMZ) Rocky Mountains, NewMexico 1968-69to 1971-72(4 seasons).
PyramidLakePilot Project(PYR) Sierra Nevada, California/Nevada 1972-73to 1974-75(3 seasons).
Santa Barbara Project(SBA) Southern Coast Range, California 1967-68to1973-74(7seasons).
)
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Resultsachievedthroughorographicprecipitationmodification
Results fromseveral projects in the western UnitedStates have
shownthat winterprecipitation increasesof 10to 15 percentarepossibleif
allsuitablestormsareseeded.
64Fromrandomizedexperiments
atClimax, Colo., precipitationincreasesof70to80percenthavebeen
reported. Theseresults, based onphysical considerations, are representative
of cases which have a high potential for artificial
stimulation.
65
64U.
S. Departmentof theInterior, BureauofReclamation, "ReclamationResearchin the
Seventies," Secondprogressreport. Awaterresources technical publication research report
No. 28, Washington, U.S. GovernmentPrintingOffice, 1977, p. 2.
65NationalAcademyof
Sciences, "ClimateandFood; ClimaticFluctuationandU.S. AgriculturalProduction,"
1976, p. 136.
)
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83
)
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83
)
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5/10/2015 11:26:21 PM
Figure9.—Tracksof thirteenmajorhurricanesin the XorthAtlanticfrom1879
through 1955 (from U.S. Naval OceanographicOffice, Publication No. 21,
Sailing Directionsfor theWestIndies, 1958).
)
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5/10/2015 11:27:13 PM
HurricaneseedingexperimentswereundertakenbytheDepartment
ofCommerceandotheragencies ofthe FederalGovernmentin 1961,
initiatingwhatcametobecalledProjectStormfury. Todateonlyfour
hurricaneshave' actuallybeenseededunderthis
project—all ofthem
between1961and1971; however, Stormfuryhasalso includedinvestigation
of fundamentalproperties of hurricanes andtheir possible
modification through computer modelingstudies, through careful
measurements of hurricane properties with research probes, and
throughimprovementsinseedingcapabilities)
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Gentryhassuggestedthat the followingfutureactivitiesshouldbe
conductedunderStormfury:
52
1. Increasedeffortstoimprovetheoreticalmodels.
2. Collection of datato furtheridentify naturalvariability in
hurricanes.
3.
Expandedresearch—boththeoretical andexperimental—on
physics of hurricane clouds andinteractions betweenthe cloud
andhurricanescalesofmotion.
4. Morefieldexperimentsontropical cyclonesat every opportunity.
5. Testsofothermethodsandmaterialforseeding.
6. Further evaluation of other hypotheses for modifying
hurricanes.
7. Developmentof thebest proceduresto maximizeresults of
fieldexperiments.
)
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6/10/2015 11:43:05 PM
Inconclusion, the1973NationalAcademyofSciencesstudysays
:
Tosummarizetheresultsofthepastfewyears'workontargeting, itcanhesaid
that earlier dobuts abouttheinevitability of nuclei reachingeffective altitudes
fromgroundgeneratorstendtobesupportedbyanumberofrecentobservational
studies. Someof these merely confirm the rather obvious prediction that stable
lapse rateswill be unfavorableto theefficacy ofgroundgenerators; othersindicate
surprising lack of vertical ascent underconditions that one might have
expectedto favorsubstantial vertical transport. Therecentworkalso tendsto
support the view that plumes from ground generatorsin mountainousterrain
mustbe expectedto exhibit exceedingly complex behavior; andeachsite must
beexpectedtohaveitsownpeculiaritieswithrespecttoplumetransport. Tracking
experimentsbecomeanalmostindispensablefeatureofseedingtrialsoroperations
insuchcases.
)
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Someexpensive, brute force successes havebeen obtained by burningfuels to
clearfogsoreventocreateclouds. Amoreingeniousapproachis tousesolarheat
to alter part of the air-surface boundaryor a portion of the free atmosphere.
Black andTarmy(1963) proposedten by ten kilometer asphaltgroundcoatings
to create a "heat mountain"' to enhancerain, orto reducepollution by breaking
throughaninversion. Recently Gray, etal. (1975) havesuggested tappingsolar
energy with carbondust over100-1,000 timeslarger areasfornumerousweather
modification objectives rangingfromrainenhancementtosnowmelt, cirrus production,
and stormmodification. Thephysical hypotheses have undergonepreliminary
modellingwithpromisingresults, whilethelogisticsappearmarginally
feasible. Drawbacksare the unknownanduncontrollable transport of the dust
anditsenvironmentalunattractiveness.
Acleanerwayof differentially heatingthe air appearsto bea possiblefuture
byproductof the spaceprogram. ASpaceSolarPowerLaboratoryis in theplanning
stages atNASA. Its mainpurposeis to provideelectric power, whichwill
be sent by the space laboratory to the earth's surface. The microwave power
will be convertedtoDCby meansof groupsof rectifying antennas, whichdissipateafractionofthepowerintoheat.
Preliminarycalculations
indicate that
the atmosphericeffect of the estimated heating wouldbe comparableto that by
a suburban area and thus could impact mesoscale processes. Future systems
could dissipatemuchmoreheat andcould conceivably be a cleanwaytomodify
weatherprocesses. Itisnottoosoontobeginnumericalsimulationofatmospheric
modifications that latergeneration systemsofthis typemightbeableto achieve.
Radiation alteration appearsto be a hopeful weathermodification approach
still lacking a developed technology. Acirrus cover has long been welcomedas
naturalfrost protectionwhenit restricts the nocturnalloss oflong-waveradiation.
Morerecently, theeffect of cirrus in cuttingoffshort-wavedaytimeradiationhasbeenmodelledandmeasured.
Artificial simulationofcirruseffects
byminuteplastic bubblesimpregnatedwith substancesto absorbselected wavelengths
received preliminary attention.
. .
but, tomyknowledgehas not been
pursued.
Alteration of the sea-air interface is also a potentially promising weather
modification technique, particularly to suppressconvection ortomitigatethedestruction
bytropical hurricanes. However, the technology in this area maybe
farther fromactualfield trials than that in radiation. If methodscould bedeveloped
to restrict sea-air latent andsensible heatflux, the development from
tropicalstormto hurricanemightbeinhibited, whilenot losing rainfall or other
benefits of the system. Presently the monomolecularfilms whichcut downthe
evaporation fromreservoirs donot stay intactin oceanicstormconditions, even
ifthelogistics of their delivery overwideareasaheadof thestorm weresolved.
Logistic obstacles havealso impeded implementation of the promisingidea of
coolingthew)
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Inthe1973studypublishedbytheNationalAcademyofSciences15
threebroadresearchgoalsforweathermodificationwererecommended
alongwithspecificresearchprogramsandprojectsrequiredtoachieve
thosegoals. Thethree goalsare
:
1.
Identificationbytheyear1980oftheconditionsunderwhich
precipitation can be increased, decreased, andredistributed in
variousclimatological areasthroughtheadditionofartificial ice
andcondensationnuclei
;
2. Developmentin the next decade of technology directed
towardmitigatingtheeffects ofthe followingweatherhazards
:
hurricanes, hailstorms, fogs, andlightning; and
3. Establishment of a coordinated national andinternational
systemfor investigatingtheinadvertenteffectsofmanmadepollutants,
witha target date of 1980 for the determinationof the
extent, trend, andmagnitudeoftheeffectofvariouscrucial pollutants
onlocal weather conditions and onthe climate of the
world.
1)
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igube1.—Asurveyof grandiose schemesthat havebeen proposedtomodifyor
control climate. (FromKellogg andSchneider, 1974.)
)
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Inreview, tables2, 3, and4summarizemuchofthepertinentinformationpresented
in the precedingsections. Theyare, respectively,
"InadvertentEffects on TenWeather Phenomena," "ChronicLow
LevelPollutants: Mankind'sLeveragePointsonClimate," and"PossibleCausalFactorsinFutureClimaticChangetotheYear2000A.
D."
TABLE2.—INADVERTENT EFFECTS ON10WEATHER PHENOMENA1
Importance/signifi-
Certaintyof inad- Scaleofinadvertent cance of inadvert-
Phenomenon vertenteffect effect enteffect
1. Visibilityandhaze Certain. Meso Major.
Possible Macro Moderate.
2. Solar radiationandsunshine Certain Meso Do.
3. Cloudiness ....do Urban Do.
Probable Meso Do.
4. Precipitation (quantity). Certain Urban Major.
Possible Mesoormacro Moderate.
Precipitation (quality).. Certain Urban Major.
do Meso Unknown.
Possible Macro Do.
5. Thunderstorms(hail/heavyrain) Certain. Urban Major.
Possible Meso Do.
6. Severestorms(tornados, other) Unknown Unknown Unknown.
7. Temperature Certain... Urban Moderate.
Possible Populatedmeso Minor.
8. Wind/circulation. Urban Moderate.
Unlikely Meso Unknown.
9. Fog
Urban/micro Major.
10. Humidity Moderate.
do Meso Do)
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TheFederalGovernmenthasbeeninvolvedfor over30 yearsin a
numberofaspectsofweathermodification, throughactivities ofboth
theCongressandtheexecutivebranch. Since1947, weathermodificationbills
pertainingto research support, operations, policy studies,
regulations, liabilities, activityreporting, establishmentofpanelsand
committees, andinternational concerns havebeen introducedin the
Congress. Therehavebeenhearingsonmanyoftheseproposedmeasures,
andoversight hearings havealso been conducted onpertinent
ongoingprograms.
Atotal ofsix publiclawsspecificallyonweather
modificationhavebeenenactedsince 1953, whileothershaveincluded
provisionswhichinsomewayare relevant to weathermodification.
Resolutions dealingwiththe use of weathermodification technology
as aweaponbyU.S. military forcesandpromotionof aU.N. treaty
prohibitingsuchactivitieshavebeenintroducedinbothhousesofthe
Congress, andonesuchresolutionwaspassedbytheSenate.
)
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LegislativeandCongressionalActivities
federal legislation on weathermodification
Summary
Congressional interest in weather modification has been demonstratedbythefactthatlegislationonthesubjecthasbeenintroduced
innearlyeverysessionofCongresssince1947. Nevertheless, inspiteof
theapparentinterest, atotalofsixpubliclawsrelatingspecificallyand
directlytoweathermodificationhavebeenenactedduringthisperiod,
andtwoofthosepassedweremeretimeextensionsofspecificprovisions
inearlierlaws.
2
Briefly, theselawsare
:
PublicLaw83-256 (67Stat. 559) ofAugust13, 1953, tocreate
anAdvisory CommitteeonWeatherControl, toperforma complete
studyandevaluation of publicandprivateexperimentsin
weathermodificationtodeterminetheU.S. roleinresearch, operations,
andregulation
;
PublicLaw84-664(70Stat. 509) ofJuly9, 1956, toextendthe
authorizedlife of theAdvisory Committeefor 2 years through
June30,1958
;
PublicLaw85-510 (72Stat. 353) ofJuly12,1958, toauthorize
anddirecttheNationalScienceFoundationtoinitiateaprogram
ofstudy, research, andevaluationinthefieldofweathermodification
andto prepare an annual reportto the Congress andthe
Presidentonweathermodification
;
PublicLaw92-205(85Stat. 736) ofDecember18,1971, toprovide
for the reporting of weathermodificationactivities to the
FederalGovernmentthroughtheSecretaryofCommerceandfor
disseminationofthatinformationbytheSecretaryofCommerce
fromtimetotime
)
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PublicLaw93-436(88Stat. 1212) ofOctober5,1974, toextend
appropriation authorization for reporting and disseminating
weather modification activities throughthe Secretary of Commerce,
asprescribedbyPublicLaw92-205, through1977;
PublicLaw94-490 (90 Stat. 2359) of October13, 1976, to
authorizeanddirecttheSecretaryofCommercetodevelopanationalpolicyonweathermodificationandtoextendappropriation
authorization forreportinganddisseminatingweathermodificationactivities,
asprescribedbyPublicLaw92-205, through1930.
Although not exclusively concerned with weather modification,
anotheract, PublicLaw90^t07ofJuly18,1968, amendedtheNational
ScienceFoundationActof1950. Section11ofthisnewactspecifically
repealed PublicLaw85-510, bywhichtheXSFhadbeendirectedto
initiateandsupportaprogramof study, research, andevaluationin
weathermodificationandtoreportannuallyonthesubject.
Anotherlawofsomesignificance to weathermodification, though
muchbroaderinits overall purpose, wasthefiscalyear 1962 public
worksappropriation, PublicLaw87-330 (75 Stat. 722) of September30,
1961. Througha $100,000 write-in to thisbill, the Congress
initiated the atmospheric water resources program (Project Skywater),
conductedbytheBureauofReclamationin theDepartment
of theInterior. Throughsubsequentpublicworksappropriationsthe
Congress has continuedto providedirection to thisprogramalmost
every year since its inception and has provided frequent funding
increasesoverlevelsbudgetedbytheadministration.
)
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eAdvisory CommitteeonWeatherControl recognized that the
developmentof weathermodification rested on fundamental knowledge
obtainable onlythroughscientific researchinto processes in the
atmosphere and recommendedthat an agency, preferably the National
ScienceFoundation (XSF), bedesignatedtopromoteandsupport
meteorological research in neededfields, to coordinate research
projects, andto constitute a central point for assembly, evaluation,
anddissemination of information.
10
Accordingly, whenthe Congress
enacted PublicLaw85-510ofJuly10, 1958, whichamendedtheNational
Science Foundation Actof 1950, additional responsibilities
wereincorporated, directingtheFoundation
:
Toinitiate andsupport a programof study, research, andevaluation in the
field of weathermodification, giving particular attention to areas that hav)
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xperiencedfloods, drought, hail, lightning, fog, tornadoes, hurricanes, or other
weatherphenomena, andto report annuallyto the President andthe Congress
thereon.
11
TheInSFwasfurtherdirectedto"..
.
consult withmeterologists
andscientists in privatelifeandwithagencies ofGovernmentinterestedin,
oraffected by, experimentalresearchin thefield ofweather
control."
12
AuthoritywasgiventoNSFtoholdhearings, to require
the keeping of records andfurnishing of information on weather
modification research andoperations, andto inspect records and
premises as appropriate in order to carry out the responsibilities
assigned.
Ineffect, theNSFwasasigned the "lead agency" role (a term
whichwasin later yearstobecomethe subject ofmuchdebateand
discussion) amongFederalagenciesinvolvedinweathermodification.
Adecadelater, theFoundationwasstrippedofthesespecificresponsibilities
and of this lead agency role whenthe Congress again
amendedthe National Science Foundation Actof 1950, bypassing
PublicLaw90-407ofJuly18, 1968. Section11ofthe1968lawstruck
section 14andparagraph(9), subsection (a), ofsection 3 fromthe
NationalScienceFoundationAct, terminatingasofSeptember1,1968,
theresponsibilities spelledoutin thesesections adecadeearlierwith
regardtoweathermodification.
TheSenatereportwhichaccompaniedthebillsubsequentlyenacted
asPublicLaw90-407statedthattheNSFw)
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7/10/2015 4:31:40 AM
sdivestedofthesefunctions"..
.
foranumberofreasons:"
13
One[reason] is that the ramifications of weathermodification are so broad
asto encompassfar moreissues thanscientific ones. Anotheris that progress
in this area has reachedthe pointwhereit requiresmuchdevelopmentalwork
as well as continuedresearch. TheDepartmentsofCommerceandInteriorare
assumingmuchoftheresponsibility inthis area, whichtheFoundationmaycontinuetobackupwithappropriate
supportforsomeof the researchstill needed.
NSFretainsampleauthorityto continue supportfor thelatter.
. .
andclearly
shoulddoso. TheFoundationwill inanycase continue those researchactivities
necessarytopreservecontinuityin theprogram, pendingpassageof theweather
modification legislationnowpending. In the latter regard, the committeecalls
attention to the necessity for legislation to continue elsewherein the executive
branchthedevelopmentandreportingactivitieswhichNSFwillnothaveauthoritytosupportafterSeptember1,1968.
AlthoughlegislationwasintroducedandconsideredbytheCongress
whichwouldhavereassignedthisleadagencyroletoanotheragency,
nofurther congressional action wastaken on weather modification
until1971.
Reportingof weathermodificationactivities to the Federal Government
ResponsibilityformaintainingadepositoryforinformationonU.S.
weathermodificationactivitiesandforreportingannuallyonFederal
programsandthe generalstatusofthefieldrestedwiththeNational
Science Foundationfor the 10-year period from1958 through1968,
after which, as has beennoted, these andother functions weresuspendedbyPublicLaw90-
407.
)
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TheNationalWeatherModificationPolicyActof1976
)
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7/10/2015 4:33:58 AM
ummary
Since 1947at least 110billsand22 resolutions dealingspecifically
withoneormoreaspectsofweathermodificationhavebeenintroduced
in the Congress. Moreover, manyadditionalpiecesofproposedlegislation,
providingauthorization orappropriationsforbroaderagency
programs, havegivensupportand/ordirectiontoweathermodification
activities within Federal agencies, often without mentioning such
activitiesperse.
Table1summarizesthelegislationandresolutionsconcernedspecificallywith
weathermodification, whichwere proposed fromthefirst
session of the 80thCongressto thefirst session of the95th Congress.
Thetableshows, foreachsession, thenumbersofbillsandresolutions
pertainingtoeachofseveralaspectsofthesubjectandthetotalnumber
ofeachintroduced. Thenumbersappearingundertheseveral subjects
of weathermodificationlegislation will, in general, exceed thetotal
numberofmeasuresintroducedin a given yearbecausemanyofthe
billswereconcernedwithmorethanoneaspect. Itwillbenotedthata
totalofsixlawswerepassedduringthisperiod, asstatedearlier. Duringthe93dCongresstheSenatealsopassedoneresolution,
whichsupportedtheposition
that theUnitedStatesshouldseek theagreement
of othernationsto a treatybanningenvironmentalmodificationas a
weaponofwar.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 4:34:47 AM
Theexecutive branchof the Federal Governmentsponsors nearly
alloftheweathermodificationresearchprojectsintheUnitedStates,
underavarietyofprogramsscatteredthroughatleastsixdepartments
andagencies. TheNationalAtmosphericSciencesProgramfor197S39
includesinformationonspecificprogramsoftheDepartmentsofAgriculture,
Commerce, Defense, andtheInteriorandoftheEnergyResearchandDevelopmentAdministration(
nowpartoftheDepartment
of Energy) andthe National Science Foundation. Inrecent years
weathermodificationresearchprogramswerealsoidentifiedbytheDepartmentofTransportationandtheNationalAeronauticsandSpace
Administration.
InadditiontospecificprogramssponsoredbyFederalagencies, there
are other functions relevantto weathermodificationwhichare performedinseveralplacesinthestructureoftheexecutivebranch.
Various
Federal advisory panels andcommittees andtheirstaffs, which
havebeenestablishedtoconductin-dep>thstudiesandpreparecomprehensivereports,
toprovideadviceandrecommendations, ortocoordi-
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 4:35:29 AM
hale Federal weathermodification programs have been housed and
supportedwithinexecutivedepartments, agencies, oroffices. Forexample,
the National Advk^iyCommittee on Oceans and Atmosphere
(XACOA) andtheWeatherModificationAdvisory Boardare supportedthroughtheDepartmentofCommerce.
Whilethemembership
of the Interdepartmental Committee for Atmospheric Sciences
(ICAS) comes fromeach of the Federal departments andagencies
with atmosphericscience programs, its staff has been housedin the
NationalScienceFoundation.
TheprogramwherebyFederalandnon-FederalU.S. weathermodification
activitiesarereportedtotheFederalGovernmentisadministered
by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(XOAA) withintheDepartmentofCommerce. Underthisprograma
centralfile is maintained onall suchprojects in the UnitedStates,
and summaryreports onthese projects are published on a nearly
annualbasisbyNOAA.
)
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TheInterdepartmentalCommitteeforAtmosphericSciences(ICAS)
Theprincipal mechanismfor coordination of Federal weather
modification programs has been the ICAS. Weathermodification
has beena principal concernof the committeesinceits inception in
1959, anditwasrecently stated thattheICAShasspentmoreeffort
dealingwithweathermodificationthanwithanyothersingletopic.
74
Thisclosetieandcontinuedinterest bytheICASon weather modificationwasinstilled
fromits beginning, whenit incorporated functionsofanexistinginteragencyweathermodificationcommittee.
In195s. the National Science Foundationrecognizedthe needfor
a formal interagency coordinating mechanismas part ofits newly
)
(Highlight comment Steve
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ssignedstatutoryresponsibilitiesasweathermodificationleadagency
andestablished anInterdepartmental CommitteeonWeatherModification.
Ayearlater thenewlyestablished Federal Councilfor ScienceandTechnology(
FCST) consideredtheneedfor acommitteeto
cover atmosphericsciences; and, uponagreement betweenthe President'sscienceadviserandtheDirectoroftheXSF
, theexistingInterdepartmental
Committee on Weather Modification was formally
reconstituted as the FCST'sInterdepartmental Committeefor AtmosphericSciences.
ICAShelditsfirstmeetingSeptember9,1959.75>
76
TheNational Science and TechnologyPolicy, Organization, and
PrioritiesActof1976 (PublicLaw94-282) was^signedMay11, 1976,
creatingthe Federal CoordinatingCouncilfor Science, Engineering,
andTechnology(FCCSET). Underthenewlaw, theICAS, asubcommittee
of the formerFCST. should have ceased to function, since
the parentcouncilwasabolished. Priortothesigningof PublicLaw
94-282, however, theFCSTChairmanaddresseda
letter
toallFCST
subcommitteechairmen, indicatingthat these committeesshouldcontinue
theirnormalactivities until such timeas aneworganizational
structure forFCCSETcould
be established andbeginto function.
Subsequently, theFCCSETestablished
several supporting subcommittees,
one of whichis the Committee on Oceans and Atmosphere
(CAO). TheICASwasformallyadoptedbytheCAOonatemporary
basis, pendingcreation ofits ownsubcommitteestructure. Consequently,
theICASlias continuedto hold meetingsandpublishedits
customaryannualreport, underauthority given bytheChairmanof
theCAO.
77
Althoughthe future of theICASis uncertain, a recent
surveyindicatedthatitsmembersfavored continuationofan'ICASlike'
?
activity. Thecommitteethusintendstomeetandconductbusiness,
atareducedlevelofactivity,
untiltheCAOorganizationbecomesfirm
andisinfulloperation)
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7/10/2015 4:37:36 AM
Inits 1971 annualreport, theICASidentified selected majorresearchprojectsinweathermodificationwhichweredesignatedas
national
projects.
85
These national projects were formulated bythe
ICASmembersthrough combinationof agencyprojects in each of
sevencategoriesofweathermodificationassigningleadagencyresponsibilitiesinmostcasestothatagencywiththemostsignificantongoing
)
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project(s) withineachcategory. Theproposednational projectsand
respectiveleadagencieswere
:
1.
NationalColoradoRiverBasinpilotproject.—Bureauof Reclamation,
Departmentofthe Interior: Totestthefeasibility of applyingacloudseedingtechnology,
proveneffectiveundercertain conditions,
to a river basin for a winter seasonto augmentthe seasonal
snowpack.
'2.
Nationalhurricanemodificationproject.—National Oceanicand
AtmosphericAdministration, DepartmentofCommerce: Todevelop
a seeding technology andassociated mathematical modelsto reduce
themaximumsurfacewindsassociatedwithhurricanes.
3.
Nationallightningsuppressionproject.—ForestService, DepartmentofAgriculture:
Todevelopaseedingtechnologyandassociated
physicalandmathematical modelsto reducethe frequency of forest
fire-startinglightningstrokesfromcumulonimbusclouds.
4. National cumulusmodification
project.—National Oceanic and
AtmosphericAdministration, DepartmentofCommerce: Todevelop
aseedingtechnologyandassociatedmathematicalmodelstopromote
thegrowthofcumuluscloudsinordertoincreasetheresultingnatural
rainfallinareaswhereneeded.
5. Nationalhail research
experiment.—National Science Foundation:
Todevelop a seeding technology andassociated mathematical
modelstoreducetheincidenceofdamaginghailfallfromcumulonimbuscloudswithoutadverselyaffectingtheassociatedrainfall.
6. National Great Lakes snoio redistribution
project.—National
OceanicandAtmosphericAdministration, DepartmentofCommerce:
Todevelopa seedingtechnologyandassociatedmathematicalmodels
tospreadtheheavysnowfalloftheGreatLakescoastalregionfarther
inland.
7. National
fogmodificationproject.—Federal Aviation Administration,
DepartmentofTransportation: Todevelop seedingor other
technologyandassociatedphysicalandmathematicalmodelstoreduce
thevisibilityrestrictionsimposedbywarmandcoldfogswhereandto
theextentneeded.8)
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Inviewofthepotentialvalueofweathermodificationtechniquesand
thecontroversialresultsobtainedthusfar, theresearchagenciesofthe
)
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U.S. Army, Navy, andAirForce, alongwiththeU.S. WeatherBureau,
in 1951 appointed anArtificial CloudNucleation Advisory Group,
chairedbyDr. SverrePetterssen of the Universityof Chicago. The
AdvisoryGroupwasaskedtomakea surveyofthefield of weather
modificationandu.
. .
torecommendaprogramforexperimentsand
teststhatcouldbeexpectedtoclarifymajoruncertaintiesthatexisted
at that timefor the operational uses of weathermodification techniques.)
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Thefirstmajorcomprehensive study of weathermodification and
its ramifications was undertaken by the Advisory Committee on
WeatherControl, followingthe congressional mandateunderPublic
Law83-256, ofAugust13,1953, whichestablishedtheCommitteeand
directedthat thestudyandevaluationofweathermodificationbeperformed.
TheCommitteewascomprisedof the Secretaries offive departments
andthe Director of the National Science Foundation, or
their designees, andfive privatemembers, including the Chairman,
whowere appointed bythe President.
42
Chaired byDr. HowardT.
Orville, the Committee forwardeditstwo-volumereport43 to PresidentEisenhoweronDecember31,10r>
7,
aftertheJune30, 1956, termination
date for the act hadbeen extended byPublicLaw84—664of
July9. 1950. Inits final report thecommitteerecommended
:
44
(1) Thatencouragementbegivenforthewidestpossiblecompetent
research in meteorology andrelatedfields. Suchresearch should be
)
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undertakenbyGovernmentagencies, universities, industries, andother
organizations.
(2) Thatthe Governmentsponsor meteorological research more
vigorouslythanatpresent. Adequatesupportisparticularlyneededto
maintaincontinuityandreasonablestability for long-termprojects.
(3) ThattheadministrationofGovernment-sponsoredresearchprovidefreedomandlatitude
forchoosingmethodsandgoals. Emphasis
should be put on sponsoring talentedmenas well as their specihc
projects.
(4) Thatanagencybedesignatedtopromoteandsupportresearch
intheneededfields, andtocoordinateresearchprojects, itshouldalso
constituteacentralpointfortheassembly, evaluation, anddissemination
of information. This agency should be the National Science
Foundation.
(5) That whenevera research project hasthe endorsementof the
NationalScienceFoundationandrequiresfacilitiestoachieveitspurpose,
the )
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TABLE 2.—SUMMARYOF FEDERAL WEATHER MODIFICATION RESEARCH FUNDING FOR FISCAL YEAR 1976
THROUGHFISCALYEAR1978(ESTIMATED), BYAGENCY ANDBY RESEARCH CATEGORY, AS REPORTED TO THE
INTERDEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEE FOR ATMOSPHERICSCIENCES. (FROM ICAS 21—FISCAL YEAR1978).
[Inthousandsofdollars]
Fiscalyear—
1976 197T 1977 1978
DepartmentofAgriculture
DepartmentofCommerce.
DepartmentofDefense:
Army... .
Navy..
Air Force
Departmentof Interior
DepartmentofTransportation
Energy Research and DevelopmentAdministration
National Science Foundation
Total....
Precipitation modification.
Fop andcloud modification
Hail suppression
Lightning modification.
Hurricaneandseverestormmodification
Social, economic, legalandecological studies
Inadvertentmodificationofweatherandclimate.
.
Supportandservices.
70 21 55 20
6,334 1,146 4,577 5,001
100 119 268 190
900 175 221 210
409 112 550 575
4,649 1,632 6,446 7,613
555
1,086 10 1,155 1,260
6,216 1,110 5,702 2,250
20,329 4,589 18,974 17,119
3,382 1,057 4,881 5,900
2,164 665 1,906 1,868
3,080 488 2,950 1,180
70 21 55 20
1,961 461 1,911 1,810
718 135 687 450
4,834 889 3,693 4,158
4,120 873 2,891 1,733
g*
.
\ I I I I
I I | I I I | |
66 68 70 72 74 76 78
FISCAL YEAR
Figure2.—ThecourseofFederalweathermodification funding (planning budgets
andactual expenditures) fromfiscal years 1966to 1978, as reported by
the Interdepartmental Committeefor Atmospheric Sciences. (Adapted from
Fleagle, 1977, withlatestdatafromICAS21-FY78.)
)
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TABLE 3.
Supporting
Type 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 agenciesi
Precipitation modification
8.0 6.2 6.0 3.7 4.4 5.0 DOC, DOI, NSF.
Fog andcloud mcdif.cation 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.4 1.1 1 3 DOD, DOT, NSF.
Hail suppression 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.3 3.5 3.8 NSF
Lightning modification
.9 .7 .7 .7 .2 .1 DOA, DOD, NSF.
Severe storm modif.cation
.8 1.9 1.7 1.5 1
8 2 DOC
Societal-economicissues .8 .9 1.1 8 6 11 NSFDOI
Inadvertent.
.6 1.7 1.7 2.9 5.2 4.9 NSF', DOT, DOC.
iDOC=
Commerce; DOD= Defense; NSF=NationalScience Foundation; DOI= Interior; DOT=Transportation; DOA=
Agriculture.
58
Ibid., p. 18.
)
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ABLE5.—WEATHER MODIFICATION FUNDING FOR FISCAL YEAR1976 THROUGHFISCAL YEAR1978 FOR THE
DEPARTMENTOF THEINTERIOR, BUREAU OF RECLAMATION, UNDERTHE ATMOSPHERIC WATERRESOURCES
MANAGEMENT PROGRAM(PROJECT SKYWATER)
1
[Inthousandsof dollars]
Fiscal year Transition Fiscal year Fiscal year
1976 quarter 1977 1978
Precipitation management:
Snowaugmentation(includingSCPP) 375 50 400 1,750
Rain enhancement(HIPLEX) 2,475 1,007 3,800 4,000
Modelingandcomprehensiveanalysis studies 500 100 470 300
Social, economic, legalandenvironmental 300 75 400 300
Supportandservices 2999
MOO
2
1,376
2
1,263
Total 4,649 1,632 6,446 7,613
)
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248
TABLE6-ATMOSPHERIC WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENTPROGRAM; OBLIGATION SUMMARYFISCAL
YEAR1962THROUGHFISCAL YEAR1977
1
Total incurred
Fiscalyear Universities Private State USBR2 Other Federal obligations
1962 $70,000 $30,000 $100,000
1963 83,747 16,253 100,000
1964 133,000 42,000 175,000
1965 459,630 $283,978 $3,500 151,892 $201,000 1,100,000
1966 1,531,400 637,250 168,700 303, 150
?
£,
qpd JCU, nnn UUU
1967 1 989 321 779 125 361,300 368 396 251,858 3,750,000
1968 2,717,689
859'
000 345,000
423',
311 286,200 4,631,200
1QfiQ
o
77Rok
obit, Idb
31
oio,
MO Dty 4bU, bob 273,500 4,689,656
1970 2,966,200 873,866 254,885 446,232 268,325 4,809,508
1971 3,519,083 1,415,187 570,600 753,436 335,344 6,593,650
1972 3, 539,323 1,348,203 664,926 784,857 321,597 6,658,906
1973 3,312,939 1, 105,029 905,200 889,387 173,021 6,385,576
1974.. 899, 110 1,498,982 336, 104 976,747 189,282 3,900,225
1975 768, 911 1,318,961 2S6.227 1,270,634 342,491 3,997,224
1976 497,572 1,480,462 617, 133 1,677,593 391,196 4,663,956
Transition quarter 214,245 609,229 234,528 469,914 96, 175 1,624,091
1977(estimate) 1,800,000 1,600,000 1,200,000 1,454,481 400,000 6,454,481
Total 27, 278,985 14, 669,398 6,276,652 10, 518,949 3, 869,489 362,348,381
Percent 44 23 10 17 6 100
1BureauofReclamation. AtmosphericWaterResourcesManagementProgram: ProjectSkywater. Infcrmaticnsummary.
May31, 1977, p. 24.
2
Includessalaries, equipment, supplies, and computercosts.
3
Official total as correctedfor recoveries, underf.nancing, andotheradjustments.
Table7.—
Bureau of Reclamation Atmospheric Water Resources Management
Program. Allocation of Fundingby Function andby MajorProjects for Fiscal
Years 1962 Through 19771
Research and development $31, 749,665
Environmental 2, 173,676
Associated comprehensivestudies 3, 296,202
Colorado River BasinPilot Project 5, 100,792
Sierra CooperativePilot Project 866,805
HIPLEX 10, 557, 767
Otherpilot projects 1, 980,000
Planning, management, andprogram support 6, 623,471
62, 348, 38)
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TABLE8.—PRINCIPAL CONTRACTORS ANDRESEARCH C00PERAT0RS ASSOCIATED WITH PROJECT SKYWATERi
University Private Government
Universityof Arizona.
Brigham YoungUniversity.
Universityof California.
UniversityofCalifornia atLosAngeles.
Universityof Colorado.
ColoradoState University.
Universityof Denver.
FresnoState College.
HarvardUniversity.
Universityof Michigan.
MontanaState University.
Universityof Nevada.
NewMexicoState University.
NewYorkUniversity.
Universityof North Dakota.
North DakotaState University.
UniversityofOklahoma.
PennsylvaniaState University.
SanDiegoState University.
South Dakota School of Mines and
Technology.
South DakotaState University.
TaftCollege.
TexasA.& M. Research Foundation.
UtahState University.
UniversityofWashington.
Universityof Wisconsin.
UniversityofWyoming.
AmosEddy, Inc.
Aeromet, Inc.
AerometricResearch, Inc.
ConvergenceSystems, Inc.
ColoradoInternational Corp.
E. Bollay Associates.
E.G.& G., Inc.
ElectronicTechniques, Inc.
Enterprise Electronics, Inc.
Environmental Research and Technology,
Inc.
Geophysical Research and DevelopmentCorp.
HumanEcology ResearchServices.
M. B. Associates, Inc.
Meteorology Research, Inc.
North American Weather Consultants.
Stanford Research, Inc.
T. G. OweBerg, Inc.
Travelers ResearchInc.
WeatherScience, Inc.
WesternScientificServices, Inc.
U.S. Air Force.
U.S. Army(PuebloDepot).
California Departmentof Transportation.
CaliforniaHighwayPartol.
ColoradoDepartmentofNaturalResources.
ColoradoRiver Municipal WaterDistrict.
ForestService.
General Services Administration.
Geological Survey.
IllinoisStateWaterSurvey.
Kansas WaterResources Board.
MontanaDepartmentofNatural Resources
andConservation.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration.
National Science Foundation.
NavyWeaponsCenter.
NavyWeatherResearchFacility.
Nebraska Departmentof Agriculture.
North DakotaWeatherModification Board.
SacramentoRiver Forecast Center.
Soil ConservationService.
South Dakota Weather Control Commission.
SouthwesternWaterConservationDistrict.
Washington Departmentof Ecology.
TexasWater DevelopmentBoard.
Utah DepartmentofWaterResources)
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Project Skywater= FY 1977
)
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kywa)
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Skywater Field Projects 1962-1977
)
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TheColorado River BasinPilot Project {CRBPP)
ThisAvas a large weathermodification research project conducted
bythe Bureauof ReclamationunderProjectSkywaterto determine
the feasibility of augmentinghigh mountain snowpacksin the San
JuanMountainsofsouthwesternColorado. Theseedinganddatacollection
phaseofthis large project wasconducted between 1970 and
1975, although planningfor the experiment beganin 1967. Project
evaluationswerepreparedin 1976, andfurtheranalysesandenvironmentalstudiesarecontinuingin
1977. Thetargetareaselectedforthe
CRBPP(ortheSanJuanProjectasit issometimescalled) covered
nearly3,400km2 (1,300mi2 ) ofsparselypopulatedmountainousterraineastandnortheast
ofDurango, Colo. Elevationsextendedfrom
above2,750 metersto 4,200 meters.
95
Figure6showsthe locationsof
target
areasandinstrumentationarraysintheCRBPPinsouthwest
Colorado)
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TheHighPlainsCooperativeProgram{HIPLEX)
)
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TheSierraCooperativePilotProject(SCPP)
)
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268
TABLE 13.—WEATHERMODIFICATION FUNDING FOR FISCAL YEAR1976THROUGHFISCAL YEAR1978 FOR THE
NATIONALSCIENCE FOUNDATION
'
[Inthousandsof dollars)
Fiscalyear—
iy/b 197T 1977 1978
Precipitation modification 532 681 150
Fopandcloud modification 88 110
Hail suppression 3,081 488 2,950 1,180
Social, economic, lepal, andenvironmental 24I8 60 287 150
Inadvertentmodification 1,153 101 629 600
Supportandservices 1,032 373 1,045 170
6,216 1,110 5,702 2,25)
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Table14—SummaryofWeathe- Modification ResearchAwardsbyNSF/RANNfor FiscalYear1973through 1976Transitional
Quarter. (Data from Annual Summariesof Awards, RANN, Division of Advanced Environmental Research and Tech-
nology.)
Principal investigator/
institution Title Effective date
Duration
(months) Amount
FISCAL YEAR1973AWARDS
Firor, JohnW., National Center for
Atmospheric Research, Boulder,
Colo.
Jayaweera, K.O.L.F., University of
Alaska, College, Alaska.
Sikdar, DhirendraN., University of
Wisconsin-Madison, Madison,
Wis.
Boone, Larry M., Department of
Agriculture, Washngton, D.C.
Taubenfeld, HowardJ., Southern
MethodistUniversity, Dallas, Tex.
Haas, J. E., University of Colorado,
Boulder, Colo.
Corrin, MyronL., Colorado State
UnrVersity, Fort Collins, Colo.
Grant, Lewis0., ColoradoState University,
FortCollins, Colo.
Barchet, Wm. Richard, University
of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison,
Wis.
McQuigg, JamesD., University of
Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, Mo.
Corrin, MyronL., ColoradoState University,
FortCollins, Colo.
Warburton, Joseph A., Desert ResearchInstitute,
Reno, Nev.
Hobbs, PeterV., UniversityofWashington,
Seattle, Wash.
Veal,' DonaldL., UniversityofWyoming,
Laramie, Wyo.
Changnon, Stanley A. University of
Illinois-Urbana, Urbana, III.
Steele, RogerL., Desert Research
Instituta. Reno, Nev.
Plooster, Myron N., University of
Denver, Denver, Colo.
Changnon, StanleyA., Jr., University
of Illinois-Urbana, Urbana, III.
Peterson, D. F., Utah State University,
Logan, Utah.
Weickmann, Helmut K., National
Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration,
Boulder, Colo.
Moore, Charles, B.,
New Mexico
Institute ofMiningand Technology,
Socorro, N. Mex.
Braham, RoscoeR., Jr., University
of Chicago, Chicago, III.
Chessin, Henry, State University at
Albany, Albany, N.Y.
Uthe, EdwardE., Stanford Research
Institute, MenloPark, Calif.
Klein, Donald A., Colorado State
University, Fort Collins, Colo.
Auer. AugustH., Jr., University of
Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo.
Ochs, Harry T., Ill, University of
Illinois-Urbana, Urbana, III.
FISCAL YEAR1974AWARDS
Anderson, C. E., University of
Wisconsin.
Auer, August H.
Wyoming.
University of
Contractforthemanagement, opera- Aug. 1, 1972 12 $2,700,000
tion, and maintenanceof the National
CenterforAtmosphericResearch
(fundsfor national hail research
experimentprogram).
Preventionoficefogformation by; n- Sept. 1, 1972 12 17,600
ducing cloud cover—Feasibility
studyin Fairbanks.
Study of the features and energy Oct. 1, 1972 12 96,900
budgetsof northeastern Colorado
hailstones.
Economic and institutional con- Oct. 15, 1972 12 65,000
siderations of suppressinghail.
Study group on the societal conse- Nov. 1, 1972 12 64,400
quencesofweathermodification.
Acomparativeanalysisofpublicsup- Dec. 1, 1972 20 60,700
port of and resistanceto weather
modification projects.
Heterogeneousice nuclei. .. do 12 49,800
Precipitation augmentation from Jan. 1, 1973 12 281,400
orographically inducedcloudsand
cloud systems.
Precipitation process modification Feb. 15, 1973 12 55,600
throughice nucleusdeactivation.
Weather modification management do 12 42,000
guidelines.
Laboratory cloud simulationto sup- Mar. 1, 1973 12 112,600
portweathermodificationresearch
andfield programs.
Silveriodideseedingratesandsnow- do 12 80,100
pack augmentation.
Physical evaluationofcloud seeding Apr. 1, 1973 15 182,000
techniquesfor modifying orographicsnowfall(
theCascadeproject).
Development of leaf-derived ice do 12 70,000
nucleiforweathermodification.
Designof a hail suppressionexperi- do 12 142,200
mentin Illinois.
Sequenceeffects of heterogeneous Apr. 15, 1973 12 71,000
nucleation.
M.crophysics—Diffusion interaction do 39,900
in ice nuclei plumes.
Studiesof urbaneffects onrainfall do 12 211,400
andsevere weather.
Workshop on inadvertent weather May1, 1973 12 29,900
modification.
Installation and maintenance of May22, 1973 6 39,033
ground networkfor national hail
research experiment.
Originandroleofelectricityinclouds. June1, 1973 12 170,800
Inadvertent weather modification in do 12 275,000
theSt. Louisarea.
Developmentof cloud seedingtech- do 12 33,500
nology utilizing modified silver
iodidestructures.
Lidar—Radiometric study of urban do 12 54,100
atmospheric processes related to
climatic modification.
Microbiological impacts of silver July1, 1973 12 67,600
iodide usedin weathermodification.
Modification of convective cloud do 12 61,300
activity by an urbanarea.
2-dimensional cloud modeling— July1, 1972 12 117,700
Application to urban effects on
precipitation.
Study of the features and energy Oct. 1, 1973 12 100,000
budgetsof northeastern Colorado
hailstorms.
Modification of convective cloud Apr. 1, 1974 12 132,000
activity.
)
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Table14. SummaryofWeatherModification ResearchAwardsbyNSF/RANN, forFiscalYear1973through1976Transitional
Quarter, (Data from Annual Summariesof Awards, RANN, Division ofAdvanced Environmental Research and Technology.)—
Continued
Principal investigator/ Duration
institution Title Effective date (months) Amount
FISCAL YEAR1974AWARDS—Continued
Barchet, William R., University of Precipitation process modification Feb. 15, 1973
Wisconsin. throughice nucleusdeactivation.
Boone, Larry M., U.S. Department Economic and institutional consid- Oct. 1, 1973
of Agriculture. erationsofsuppressinghail.
Braham, Roscoe R., Jr., University Inadvertent weathermodification in Apr. 1, 1974
of Chicago. theSt. Louisarea.
Changnon, StanleyA., Jr., University Studies of urbaneffects onrainfall do
of Illinois. andsevere weather.
Designof a hail suppression experi- June1, 1973
mentin Illinois.
Chessin, Henry, State University of Developmentof cloud seedingtech- do
N.Y. nology utilizing modified silver
iodide structures.
Chisholm, JohnP., Sierra Nevada An accurate and inexpensive air- July1, 1974
Corp. borne windfinding system.
Corrin, MyronL., Colorado State Heterogeneous ice nuclei develop- Oct. 1, 1973
University. ment.
Davis, Briant L., South Dakota Chemicalcomplexingofsilver iodide- Sept. 1, 1972
SchoolofMinesandTechnology. alkali iodide aerosols preparedfor
cloud seeding purposes.
Dennis, Arnett S., South Dakota Numerical analysis of proposedhail Sept. 1, 1971
SchoolofMines andTechnology. suppressionconcepts.
Firor, JohnW., National Centerfor Nationalhail research experiment.. July1, 1973
AtmosphericResearch.
Fujita, TheodoreT., University of Basic research ontornadoesrelevant Sept. 1, 1971
Chicago. to their modification.
Fukuta, Norihiko, University of Developmentof cloud seeding gen- July 15, 1973
Denver. eratorsforbiodegradeableorganic
ice nuclei.
Grant, Lewis 0., Colorado State Extended area effects from local Mar. 1, 1974
University. weathermodification.
Cloud simulation and aerosol lab- Apr. 4, 1974
oratory.
Haas, J. Eugene, Human Ecology Acomparativeanalysis of publicre- Aug. 1, 1974
ResearchServices, Inc. action to weather modification
projects.
Hobbs, Peter V., University of Orographicsnowfall in the Cascade Apr. 1, 1973
Washington. project.
Klein, Donald A.( Colorado State Managementof silver iodide usedin July1, 1974
University. weather modification: Developmentin
microbial threshold toxicity
criteria.
Little, Gordon C, National Oceanic Operating two dual-Doppler radars June1, 1974
and AtmosphericAdministration. in conjunction with the 1974
summeroperations.
McQuigg, JamesD., University of Weathermodification guidelines Feb. 15, 1974
Missouri.
Moore, Charles B., New Mexico Lightning protection systems and May15, 1974
Institute of Mining and Tech- thunderstormelectrification,
nology.
Mordy, WendellA., Center for the Aprogramof social science research Oct. 1, 1973
Future. coordination and goal evaluation
for Metromex.
Ochs, Harry T., Ill, University of Supportivemodelingofurbaneffects July1, 1974..
Illinois. onprecipitation.
Plooster, Myron N., University of
Microphysics—Diffusion interaction Apr. 15, 1974
Denver. in ice nuclei plumes
Schaefer, VincentJ., StateUniversity Secondinadvertent weathermodifi- April1, 1974
ofNewYork cation workshop.
Schickendanz, PaulT., Illinois State Climatic alterations in the Great June1, 1974
WaterSurvey. Plains dueto widespreadirrigation.
Simpson, Joanne, University of Evaluation and design of weather July1, 1974
Virginia. modification experiments.
Steele, Roger L., University of Sequenceeffects of heterogeneous April 15, 1974
Nevada nucleation.
Taubenfeld, HowardJ., Southern Study group on the societal conse- Oct. 1, 1973
MethodistUniversity. quencesof weathermodification.
Veal, Donald L., University of Development of leaf-derived ice Apr. 1, 1973
Wyoming. nuclei forweathermodification.
Warburton, JosephA., Universityof Silveriodideseedingratesandsnow- Mar. 1, 1973
Nevada. pack augmentation.
FISCAL YEAR1975AWARDS
Inadvertentweather modification:
Auer, AugustH., University of Modificationofconvectivecloudactiv- Apr. 1, 1975
Wyoming. ity by an urbanarea.
Braham, Roscoe R., Jr., Uni- Inadvertent weathermodificationin do
versity of Chicago. theSt. Louisarea.
12
t^s
$JJ,
finn
ouu
15 54,000
243,000
12 237,500
12 33,500
12 33,500
12 44,400
12 49,800
24 103,900
24 86,300
12 2,000,000
OA
55 400
12 106,900
9 250,000
6 4,000
2 22,800
15 182,000
3 16 900
1
in
1U,
nnn
UUU
12 42,000
1
1JU, uuu
3 15,000
9 /
0, UUU
12 39, S00
24
it
jj,
nnn
UUU
24 )
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 4:49:55 AM
able14. SummaryofWeatherModification ResearchAwardsbyNSF/RANN, for FiscalYear1973through 1976Transitional
Quarter. (Data fiom Annual Summariesof Awards, RANN, Division ofAdvanced Environmental Research and Tech-
nology.)—Continued
Principal investigator/ Duration
institution Title Effective date (months) Amount
FISCAL YEAR1975AWARDS—Continued
Inadvertentweathermodification—Continued
Chagnon, StanleyA., University Studiesof urbaneffects onrainfall Apr. 1, 1975 12 $257,200
of Illinois. andsevere weather.
Gossard, Earl E., National Dual-Doppler radar investigation of June15, 1975 12 60,000
OceanicandAtmosphericAd- windflow patternsin Metromex.
ministration.
Ochs, HarryT., University of Numericalcloud modeling Apr. 1, 1975 10 63,400
lllinios.
Schickedanz, Paul T., Univer- Climatic alternations in the Great June1, 1974 24 55,500
sity oflllinios. Plains due to widespread irrigation.
Societal utilization:
Boone, Larry M., U.S. Depart- Economicandinstitutional consider- Oct. 1, 1973 15 54,500
mentofAgriculture. ations ofsuppressinghail.
Grant, LewisO., ColoradoState Extended area effects from local Dec. 1, 1974 12 280,000
University. weathermodification.
Haas, J.
EugeneHumanEcology Acomparativeanalysisof publicre- Oct. 1, 1974 12 76,000
ResearchService. action to weather modification
projects.
Klein, DonaldA., ColoradoState Microbiological impacts of silver July1, 1975 __ 12 46,600
University. iodide usedin weather modification.
McQuigg, JamesD., University Weather modification management Aug. 1, 1974. 14 41,000
of Missouri. guidelines.
Mordy, W. A., Center for the The importance of climate and July1, 1974 15 87,000
Future. weatheralterations to mankind.
Morgan, G. M., University of Designof a hail suppression experi- Nov. 1, 1974 12 67,800
Illinois. mentin lllinios.
Shaefer, VincentJ., State Uni- Second inadvertent weather modi- Apr. 1, 1974 12 33,000
versity ofNewYork. ficationworkshop.
Taubenfeld, HowradJ., Southern Study group ontheconsequencesof November1974... 6 13,800
MethodistUniversity. weathermodification.
Weatherhazardmitigation:
Atlas, David, National Center Nationalhail research experiment... July 1975 12 2,130,000
forAtmosphericResearch.
•Moore, CharlesB.
tNewMexico
Lightning protection and thunder- June1, 1975 12 130,000
InstituteofMiningandTech- stormelectrification,
nology.
Weathermodification systems:
Anderson, CharlesE., Univer- Studies on the dynamics, micro- Jan. 1, 1975.. 12 96,000
sity ofWisconsin. physics, andforecastingof severe
local storms.
Chisholm, JohnP., Sierra fJe- An accurate and inexpensive air- July1, 1974 9 44,400
vada Corp. bornewindfinding system.
Davis, Briant L., Institute of Chemicalccmplexingofsilveriodide- Sept. 1, 1972 24 103,900
AtmosphericSciences. alkali iodideaerosolspreparedfor
cloud-seeding purposes.
Fukuta, Norihiko, Universityof Cloud-seeding generators for bio- July15, 1974 12 100,400
Denver. degradableorganicice nuclei.
Grant, LewisO., ColoradoState Cloud simulation and aerosol lab- Nov. 1, 1974 12 18,000
University. oratory.
Little, Gordon C, National Oce- Dual-Dopplerradarinvestigationsof July1, 1974 12 60,000
anic and Atmospheric Ad- windfields in severestorms.
ministration.
Simpson, Joanne, Universityof Evaluation and design of weather do 12 50,000
Virginia. modification experiments.
FISCAL YEAR1976 AWARDS
Improved weather modification
technology:
Fukuta, Norihiko, University of Developmentof cloud-seeding gen- Aug. 1, 1975 12 133, 100
Denver. erators for biodegradable organic
ice nuclei.
Gossard, Earl E., National Collectionandprocessingofmultiple May15, 1976 14.5 135,000
Oceanic and Atmospheric Dopplerradar datain NHRE.
Administration.
Grant, LewisO. Colorado State Testingandcalibration programfor July1, 1975 12 10,800
University. cloud-seeding materials, seeding
generators, and nucleus-observing
instruments.
Simpson, Joanne, University Evaluaion and design of weather do 9 73,000
of Virginia. modification experiments.
Silveriodidetracing in south Florida do 12 15,000
Warburton, JosephA., Denver Silver iodide seeding rates and do 6 49,900
ResearchInstitute. snowpackaugmentation.
Inadvertent weathermodification:
Auer, AugustH., University of Lidar, acoustic sounder and radi- July15, 1975 12 52,800
Wyoming. ometerinvestigation.
Modification of convective cloud Feb. 1, 1976 14 178,700
activityby an urbanarea.
)
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274
Table14. SummaryofWeatherModification ResearchAwardsbyNSF/RANN, for FiscalYear1973through 1976Transitional
Quarter..(Data from Annual Summariesof Awards, RANN, Division ofAdvanced Environmental Research and Tech-
nology.)—Continued
Principal investigator/
institution Title
Duration
Effective date (months) Amount
FISCAL YEAR1976 AWARDS-Continued'
Inadvertentweather modification—Continued
Braham, RoscoeR., University Inadvertent weathermodificationin Feb. 1, 1976..
of Chicago. theSt. Louisarea.
Changnon, Stanley A., Uni- Studiesof urbaneffects onrainfall ...do_
versity ofIllinois. andsevere weather.
Hobbs, Peter, University of Inadvertent weathermodification by June15, 1976.
Washington. effluents from coal-fired electric
powerplants.
Ochs, Harry T., University of Numericalcloud modeling: Applica- Feb. 1, 1976..
Illinois. tion to urbaneffects on precipitation.
Saxena, V. K., University of Airbornemappingofurban plumeof May15, 1976.
Denver. St. Louis with a cloud condensation
nuclei (CCN) spectrometer.
Social, legal, andeconomicimpactof
weathermodification:
Farhar, Barbara, HumanEcology A comparative analysis of public Dec. 1, 1975...
ResearchServices, Inc. responsetoweathermodification.
Grant, Lewis0., ColoradoState Afieldexperimenttotesthypotheses ...do
University. of the reality, characteristic, and
magnitudeofextendedareaeffects
from weathermodification.
Klein, DonaldA., ColoradoState Managementof nucleating agents Oct. 1, 1975...
University. usedin weathermodification: Developmentof
microbial threshold
toxicity criteria.
Weatherhazardmitigation:
Veal, Donald, National Center National hal research experiment... Aug. 1, 1975..
forAtmosphericResearch.
Weathermodification in supportof
agriculture:
Grant, Lewis0., ColoradoState An assessmentof the present and July1, 1975..
University. potential role in weather modificationin
agricultural production.
Huff, Floyd A., University of Assessment of weather modifica- Nov. 1, 1975..
Illinois. tion in alleviating agricultural
water shortages during droughts.
14
14
24
14
12
15 82,000
11 215,709
12 2,361,000
18 71,000
FISCALYEAR1976TRANSITIONAL
QUARTER AWARDS
Improvedweathermodificationtechnology:
Chisholm, John, Sierra Nevada
Corp.
Hallett, John, University of
Nevada.
Maki, Leroy R., University of
Wyoming.
Inadvertent weather modification:
Uthe, EdwardE., Stanford ResearchInst.
Social, legal, and economic impact
of weather modification:
Lambright, W. Henry, Syracuse
Research Corp.
Weatherhazardmitigation:
Auer, AugustH., University of
Wyoming.
Veal, DonaldL., NationalCenter
for AtmosphericResearch.
An accurate and inexpensive air- Augus
bornewind measuringsystem.
An assessmentof synoptic criteria ...do.
for ice multiplicationin convective
clouds.
Ice nucleation induced by bacteria.. ...do.
1976.
Lidar and radiometric data analysis
of mixing levels, clouds, and
precipitation processes.
..do.
Theutilization ofweathermodifica- September1976.
tion technology: AState governmentdecisionmakingstudy.
The kinematics of thunderstorm August1976
gust fronts relating to the mitigation
of airportflighthazards.
Nationalhail research experiment... July 1976
15
12
21
10
18 60,400
12 56,300
Weatherhazardmitigation
Research supportedbyNSFin thiscategoryispointedtowardthe
reductionofundesirableaspectsofselectedweatherhazards.
Although
themajorefforthasbeenin researchonthereductionofhaildamage,
research related to othersevereweatherphenomenaliasincludedin-
vestigations on lightning protection, windshear warning, and fog
hazardalleviation. Themajorproject in weather hazardmitigation
)
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BLE15.—WEATHERMODIFICATION FUNDING FOR FISCAL YEAR1976THROUGHFISCALYEAR1978 FORTHE
DEPARTMENTOFCOMMERCE, NATIONALOCEANICANDATMOSPHERICADMINISTRATION*
[Inthousandsofdollars]
Fiscalyear—
1976 1977 1977 1978
870 180 735 810
Modificationofconvective clouds
Researchfacilitiescenter(prorated)
755
1,589
171
281
757
1,176
893
1,000
Subtotal 4,304 632 2,668 2,703
Global monitoringforclimaticchange:
Airquality analysis
1,717
313
438
76
1,563
346
2,138
160
Subtotal 2,030 514 1,909 2,298
6,334 1,146 4,577 5,001
)
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TABLE17.—DEPARTMENTOF DEFENSE PLANNED EXPENDITURES FOR WEATHER MODIFICATION OPERATIONS
ANDRESEARCH, FISCAL YEAR1977 THROUGHFISCAL YEAR1979
•fin thousandsof dollars]
Fiscalyear—
1977 1978 1979
Operations: Air Force1 53 82 70
Research and development:
2
Army: Cold fog dispersal.. 237.
Navy: Cold fogdispersal 226 210
Air Force:
Cold fogandstratus dispersal
Warmfogdispersal3
550
1,400
778
2,200
714
1,200
Total, research and development. 2,413 3,188 1,91)
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7/10/2015 4:55:40 AM
EVIEWOFRECOMMENDATIONSFORANATIONAL
PROGRAMINWEATHERMODIFICATION
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 4:55:46 AM
athermodification recommendationsareas follows:
1.
U.S. AdvisoryCommitteeonWeatherControl,"FinalReportof
the Advisory Committee on WeatherControl," Washington, D.C.,
U.S. GovernmentPrintingOffice, December31, 1957. Intwovolumes,
32and422pages.
2. Special Commission on WeatherModification. "Weather and
ClimateModification," reportofthe SpecialCommissiononWeather
Modification, Washington, D.C., National Science Foundation, 1966,
NSF66-7, 79 pages.
3.
NationalAcademyofSciences, NationalResearchCouncil, CommitteeonAtmosphericSciences,"
WeatherandClimateModification
:
Problems andProspects," publication No. 1350, Washington, D.C.,
1966, intwovolumes, 40and212pages.
4. Newell, HomerE., "A RecommendedNational Programin
WeatherModification," FederalCouncilforScienceandTechnology,
InterdepartmentalCommitteeforAtmosphericSciences, ICASreport
No. 10a, Washington, D.C., November1966,93pages.
5. Federal CouncilforScienceandTechnology, Interdepartmental
CommitteeforAtmosphericSciences,"ANationalProgramforAccelerating
ProgressinWeatherModification," ICASreport No. 15a,
Washington, D.C., June1971,50pages.
6.
NationalAcademyofSciences, NationalResearchCouncil, Committee
on AtmosphericSciences, "WeatherModification: Problems
and Progress," ISBN0-309-02121-9, Washington, D.C., 1973, 280
pages.
7. ComptrollerGeneraloftheUnitedStates,"NeedforaNational
WeatherModification Research Program," Reportto the Congress,
(313)
)
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7/10/2015 4:55:53 AM
B-133202, Washington, D.C., General AccountingOffice, August23,
1974, 64 pages.
8. U.S. Domestic Council, Environmental Kesources Committee,
Subcommittee on Climate Change, "TheFederal Holein Weather
Modification," Washington, D.C., 1975,39pages.
Inadditiontotheabovereports, theannualreportsoftheNational
Advisory Committee on Oceans and Atmosphere (NACOA) frequentlycontainrecommendationsonweathermodification.
TheserecommendationsaresummarizedandthesecondannualNACOAreport
iscitedinparticular
:
NationalAdvisoryCommitteeonOceansandAtmosphere,"Second
AnnualReportto the President andCongress," Washington, D.C.,
U.S. GovernmentPrintingOffice, June29, 1973,47pages.
)
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WEATHERANDCLIMATEMODIFICATION; REPORTOFTHESPECIAL
COMMISSION OX WEATHERMODIFICATIO)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 4:57:11 AM
1.
Assessmentanddevelopmentofanunderstandingofnaturalclimaticchange.
2. Assessmentof the extent and developmentof the understandingof inadvertentmodificationsofweatherandclimate.
3. Improvementoftheprocessofweatherprediction.
4. Developmentofmeansfor deliberate interventionin atmosphericprocesses
forweatherandclimatecontrolandevaluationof their consequences.
Assteps towardattaining these pursuits the Commissionrecommendedthatthefollowingenterprisesbefostered
:
1. Examinationof the routes, rates andreservoirs of water substance and
energyexchangesinallaspectsofthehydrologiccycle.
2.
Investigationbynumericallaboratoryandfieldexperimentsofthedynamics
ofclimateasabasicstudyforweathermodificationtechnology.
3. Advancementofweatherprediction as a proofof understanding, including
support of this effort by the establishment of a global weather observation
network.
4. Broadeningoftheknowledgeofcloudphysicsanddynamicsinthelaboratory
andfield, with attention to wave phenomena and an evaluation of electrical
influences.
5. Studyof the effects of large scale surface modification by numerical and
laboratory models of the oceanic andatmospheric general circulation, andof
practicalmeansforsurfacemodificationofthelandandsea.
6. Studyof the radiative effects of changesin the atmospheric composition
andalteration ofits transparency that urban growth and newformsof industrytransportationorlandusemayevoke.
)
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ICASreport10arecommendedthatthemajorthrustofthenational
programin weathermodification for theimmediatefuturebein the
direction ofunderstandingthe physicsanddynamicsofweathersystemstoprovideasoundbasis
forexperimentationin, andapplication
of, weathermodification. Thereportalsofoundthatthebudgetfigures
andprogramexpansionplansdevelopedbytheICASselectpanelto
be abouttwiceashighasmightberealistic. (TheICASselectpanel
hadenvisioned growthin Federal fundingforweathermodification
programsfrom$9.3millionin1967to$146.8millionin 1970.)
)
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7/10/2015 4:59:17 AM
ICASreportNo. 15a, preparedin 1971, proposedaprogramforaccelerating
national progress in the modification of weather through
consolidationofanumberofprimeGovernmentweathermodification
efforts intosevenkeyprojects. Aleadagencywasdesignatedforeach
of theproposednationalprojects. Thenationalprojectsweredefined
asmultiagencyeffortsofmajornationalsignificance, whichwereconsidered
to have near-term potential for meetingidentified national
needs. Eachhadas a baseanongoingweathermodificationprogram
witha potential formakingavital contributionto the solution of a
nationalproblem.
Thenationalprojectsweredesignedtolearnaboutphysicalmechanisms
andto test scientific concepts, exceptfor onewiththespecial
designationofpilot project. Thepilotprojectwasconcernedwiththe
developmentofefficientoperationaltechniquesandthe processofdecisionmaking.
Thesenationalprojectsweredesignedsothatdifferent
departmentswithdifferingmissionswouldadvancetheirownas well
asbroadernationalinterestsbyformalcollaborationwithoneanother.
Theproposednationalprojectsandlead agencieswere:
1.
NationalColoradoRiverBasinpilotproject, BureauofReclamation,
to test the feasibility of applyinga cloud-seeding technology,
proveneffectiveundercertainconditions, to ariverbasinforawinter
seasontoaugmenttheseasonalsnowpack.
2. National hurricane modification project, National Oceanic and
AtmosphericAdministration, todevelopaseedingtechnologyandassociated
mathematical modelsto reducethemaximumsurfacewinds
associatedwithhurricanes.
3. Nationallightningsuppressionproject, ForestService, todevelop
a seeding technology and associated physical and mathematical
modelstoreducethefrequencyofforestfire-startinglightningstrokes
fromcumulonimbusclouds.
4. Nationalcumulusmodificationproject, NationalOceanicandAtmospheric
Administration, to developa seeding technology andassociated
mathematical modelsto promote the growthof cumulus
cloudsinordertoincreasetheresultingnaturalrainfallinareaswhere
needed.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
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5. Nationalhailresearchexperiment, NationalScienceFoundation,
to develop a seedingtechnologyandassociatedmathematical models
to reduce the incidence of damaginghailfall from cumulonimbus
cloudswithoutadverselyaffectingtheassociatedrainfall.
6. National Great Lakes snowredistribution project, National
OceanicandAtmosphericAdministration, todevelopaseedingtechnologyandassociatedmathematicalmodelstospreadtheheavysnowfalloftheGreatLakescoastalregionfartherinland.
7. Nationalfogmodificationproject, FederalAviationAdministration,
to develop seedingor other technology andassociated physical
andmathematical modelstoimprovethevisibility inwarmandcold
fogswhereandtotheextentneeded.
Inadditiontothespecialsupportneededforthesenationalprojects,
a significant increase in relevantbroadbackgroundresearchanddevelopmentsupportwouldbeneeded.
Inthisregard, theareasofnuclei
countingandefficiency assessment, thephysicalchemistryofnucleatingagents,
themicrophysicsanddynamicsofmesoscalesystems, mesoscalemathematicalmodels,
andcloudphysicsinstrumentation, suchas
dopplerradarsandmicrowavesensors, weresingledoutinparticular.
Specificrecommendationswerealsomadetoestablishanationaldepository
forweathermodificationdata, forthestudyofandeffective
handlingof the socioeconomiclegal aspects for the future, andfor
certainecologicalandhydrologicalstudiestobeperformed.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:00:22 AM
327
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Arizona
X
California
X X
Colorado
X X
Connecticut
X X
Florida
X X
Idaho.
X X
Illinois
X
Iowa,..
X
Kansas
X X
Louisiana
X
Minnesota.
X
Montana
X X
Nebraska
X X
Nevada
X X
NewHampshire
X
NewMexico
X
NewYork
X
X X
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.
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X X X X
Pennsylvania
X X X X X
South Dakota
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Texas
X X X X X X X
Utah
X X X X X X X
Washington
X X X X X
Wet Virgnia
X
X
Wisconsin
X X X
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:02:36 AM
SURVEYANDSUMMARYOF STATEINTERESTSANDACTIVITIESINWEATHER
MODIFICATION
During1977, theNorthAmericanInterstateWeatherModification
Council(NAIWMC) surveyed weathermodificationinterests inall
50States, posingthefollowingquestionstoappropriateStateagencies
orofficials
:
1.
WhichorganizationsinyourStatehavethemissionoflicensing,
monitoring, controlling, oroperatingweathermodificationactivities?
2. Does your State presently support weather modification programs?
3.
Whatweathermodification regulation doesyourStatehave?
4.
Whatpositionsonweathermodification doesyourStatehave?
29
TheresponsesreceivedinreplytotheNAIWMCquestionnairehave
since been revised andupdated. Thedatain table 3 were obtained
fromofficials intherespective Statesandhavebeenupdatedthrough
January1978.30 Inthetablethe States arearrangedaccordingto the
10 areastowhichtheyhadbeenassignedbytheNAIWMCpriorto
the reorganizationintosix areasat theNovember1977 annualmeeting.
31
(Areas2and4werecomprisedoftheCanadianProvincesand
theMexicanStates, respectively, andarenotincludedintheresultso)
(Highlight comment Steve
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nalysisofcalendaryear1975projects
Thetotal listing of both non-Federal andFederal U.S. weather
modification projects conducted during 1975 and appearingin the
latestXOAAsummaryreport36
appeal's in appendix G. Ofthe 85
projects reportedin 1975, 12werecompletedearlyintheyear, but12
similar projects werereinstatedlaterthesameyearatthesamelocations.
Furthermore, twoU.S. AirForceoperationalprojectsinAlaska
werereplacedduringthesameyearbyasingleproject. Ofthe72nonduplicative
projects in asmanyseparate locations, 58 were nonfederally
sponsored andthe Federal Government sponsored14. This
divisionandthebreakdownof the72projectsbynumbersin various
categories ofinitiation, completion, andcontinuationduring1975are
shownin table4. Tables5and6 givenumbersofprojectscarried out
according to various types of operators and accordingto kinds of
sponsors, respectively. Someactivities, suchas fogdispersal projects
at airports, havemultiple sponsors, as several airlines, for example,
mayenterintojointfundingarrangements. Ofthe80distinctsponsors
intable6, at least13are publicatthe Stateandlocal levelifthefour
categories—municipaldistricts. States, cities,
andcounties—arecombined.
Atleast 23 non-Federal public projects during 1975 can be
counted, however, fromthe listing in appendixG, since someof the
sponsorsenumeratedintable6fundedmorethanoneproject; someof
the sponsorscountedin the categoryof"airlines/airports" werealso
publicagencies.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:03:42 AM
able4.
—
Active, nonduplicative weather modification projects inthe UnitedStates
in calendar year1975{from Charak, 1976)
Non-Federalprojects 58
Federally sponsoredprojects 14
Projects activeonJan. 1, 1975 35
Projects activeonDec. 31, 1975 2fi
Projects activeonJan. 1andDec. 31, 1975 10
Projectsinitiated in calendar year 1975 37
Projectscompletedin calendaryear 1975 46
35Charak. MasonT.. "WentherModification Activity Reports: Calendar Year 197.VNational
Oceanic and Atmosnheric Administration, Office of Environmental Monitoring and
Prediction. Rockville, Md.. June197G. 64pp.
Mlhid..
pp. 19-35.
37
Ibid., pp. 3-7.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:03:57 AM
345
TABLE 5.—OPERATORSOF WEATHER MODIFICATION ACTIVITIES (FROM CHARAK, 1976)
Type Operators
Commercial weathermodifiers 15
Universities 5
Federal 5
Municipaldistricts 5
Communityassociations 2
Powercompanies 1
Individuals 2
Total 35
Activities
72
TABLE6.—SPONSORSOFWEATHERMODIFICATIONACTIVITIES(FROMCHARAK, 1976)
Type
Communityassociations.
Federal
Airlines/airports
Municipaldistricts
States
Powercompanies
Private sector
Cities
Counties
Total
Sponsors Activities
TABLE 7.—PURPOSE ANDSPONSORSHIP OF WEATHERMODIFICATION ACTIVITIES (FROM CHARAK, 1976)
Sponsors Snow
Precipitation
Dispersefog
Cold Warm
Decrease
hail Research
Communityassociations 5
Airlines/airports
Federal agencies
Municipaldistricts 4 3
States 6
Powercompanies 2
Private sector .... 1
Cities
Counties 1
Total 17 5
16 6
9 1
2 12
2 1
1 6 1
2
1 2
1 1 1
1
22 13 2 14 1 5
Table8summarizesweathermodificationstatisticsbyStateandby
total target areacoveredfor 1975. Seventy-fiveactivities in 25 States
areshown, duplications appearingoverthe 72 basic project locations
becausethreeprojectsextendedintoadjoiningStates—fromMichigan
intoIndiana, fromDelawareintoMaryland, andfromCaliforniainto
Nevada. Thegeographicaldistributionofallreportedprojectsisshown
in figure2. Numbersonthemapindicate the orderin whichinitial
project
reportswerereceivedbyXOAA. missingnumberscorrespondingto
projects reportedin earlieryears butnowterminated. An;'Fr
adjacenttoanumberindicatesafederallysponsoredproject.3S
Eightypercent of U.S. weathermodification projectswerecarried
outwestofKansasCityduring1975, withthelargest projectsin California,
Oklahoma. SouthDakota, andColorado, inthatorderofsize.
SouthDakota, Utah. NorthDakota. Kansas, andCalifornia, inorder,
hadthelargest areacoveragefromtheseprojects. Inthe East. Michi-
38
Ibid.,
pp. 8-10.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:04:15 AM
anledinthenumberofprojects, whileFloridahadthemostareacovered.
Thetotaltargetareacomprisedabout5percentofthetotal area
oftheUnitedStates, Federalactivitiesaccountingforabout7percent
andcommercialoperatorsfor93percentofthisarea. Sixty-fivepercent
oftheareaofSouthDakotawasspecifiedastargetarea, whileinUtah.
Delaware, and NorthDakotacorrespondingpercentages were49, 36,
and26, respectively.
39
TABLE8.—LOCATION ANDSIZE OF TARGET AREAS (FROM CHARAK, 1976)
Targetarea
Location Activities (square miles)
Alaska 2 51
California 11 5,183
Colorado 6 3,315
Delaware.... 1 750
Florida 2 4,878
Idaho 1 198
Illinois 1 2
Indiana 1 204
Iowa 2 4
Kansas 1 9,000
Maryland 1 750
Michigan 6 3,507
Montana 1 5
Nebraska 1 2
Nevada 2 755
NewHampshire 1 4
North Dakota 5 18,629
Oklahoma. 9 7,885
Oregon 3 7,841
Pennsylvania 1 200
South Dakota .... 7 50,085
Texas 3 7,200
Utah.. 3 41,510
Washington 3 56
Wyoming.. 1 180
Total 75 163,19)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:04:43 AM
TABLE 9.—OPERATORS ANDSPONSORS OF WEATHERMODIFICATION ACTIVITIES IN THE UNITED STATES
(FROM CHARAK, 1978)
Calendaryear—
1976 1977
Total activities/locations 61 88
Non-Federal.. 52 82
Federal 9 6
Operators 31 29
Federal . 4 2
Non-Federal 27 27
Commercial
'.
16 16
Waterdistricts... 7 7
Universities 2 2
Communityassociations . 1 1
Utilities... 1 1
Sponsors 59 68
Communityassociations... 18 25
Airlines
10 10
Municipaldistricts 10 12
Federal organizations . 6 3
States 5 6
Utilities 4 3
Private 5 6
Cities 1 )
(Highlight comment Steve
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TABLE11.—WEATHERMODIFICATION PURPOSE AND AGENT(FROM CHARAK, 1978)
Calendaryear—
1976 1977
Purpose:
Toincrease precipitation.
Todecreasehail
Todisperse fog...
For research
Agent:
Silver iodide.
Dryice
Liquid propane
Polyelectrolyte.
Waterspray
41 76
12 6
11 8
5 4
45 74
11 17
2 4
2 1
2
GeneralDiscussionofLocalWeatherModificationPolicy
andActivities
In mostinstances, the principal beneficiaries of weathermodification
arethelocal or regional userswhoinclude agricultural invests,
vIbid.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:05:02 AM
TABLE10.—ACTIVITIES ANDSIZE OF TARGETAREAS, BY STATE (FROM CHARAK, 1978)
Calendaryear 1976
Area
(square
Activities miles)
Calendaryear 1977
Area
(square
Activities miles)
Alaska 2 3 3 7
California 11 11,993 20 59,403
Colorado 3 2,915 6 31,300
Delaware
. 1 1,000
Florida 1
4,800
Georgia 3 9,000
Idaho 1 8,600 1 600
Illinois 2 2,502 3 3,700
Iowa 2 4 1 3,600
Kansas.... . 1
9,000 1 10,400
Louisiana 2 1,350
Maryland 1 1,100
Michigan 1 530 3 7,524
Minnesota 2 15,381 1 240
Montana 2 20,005 2 20,005
Nebraska
Nevada
121 5 7 16,326
NewHampshire
141
4
North Dakota. 4 23,068 3 16,288
Oklahoma 7 6,948 2 719
Oregon 2 7,821 3 836
SouthD'akota 3 11,821 1 2,500
Texas 5 11,226 5 11,826
Utah 4 59,410 9 92,135
Washington 3 56 10 25,379
Wisconsin 1 1,100
Wyoming 2 196 4 1,446
63 198,390 92 315,689
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:05:33 AM
BLE12.—CITIZEN VIEWS OFWHOSHOULDANDWHOWILLMAKETHEDECISION REGARDINGA LOCALCLOUD-
SEEDING PROJECT(PRIOR TOSTARTOFLOCALPROGRAM)(FROMHAAS, 1974)
[In percent)
Colorado
(N= 168)
South Dakota
(N= 182)
Response Should Will Should Will
Local residents 58 16 36 7
Local government 4 2 7 13
County andState government 0) 0)
9 15
State government 8 14 7 21
StateandFederal Government 7 15 6 8
Federal Government 7 18 1 8
Scientists 7 13 7 1
Other, including combinations2 5 8 24 7
Don'tknow 4 14 3 2)
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7/10/2015 5:06:10 AM
CALIFORNIA
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:06:30 AM
Weathermodificationprojects
Cloud-seedingprojectshavebeenunderwayin Californiasincethe
late 1940's, and someprojects sponsored byutility companies have
beencontinuoussincethe1950's. Someoperationsarecarriedoutduring
the winter season to increase winter snowpack, whoserunoffis
used for hydroelectricpowergeneration andtoaugmentwatersupplies.
Otherprojects are designedto increasesummerrainfall for a
variety ofwaterneedsandforfightingforestfires.
Fifteen weather modification licenses were issued in California
duringcalendarvear1977, and14projectswereconductedwithinthe
1977 wateryear/October1,1976throughSeptember30, 1977.54 Table
13showstheprojectsactiveintheStateduringthisperiodalongwith
licensedoperatorswhowereinactiveduringthatyear. Projectsinthe
tablewithan"E" followingtheprojectnumberwereemergencyprograms,
whichnearly doubledthecustomarynumberof annualprojects.
Thevariety of public andprivate clients sponsoring operational
projects in the Stateis seen in the fourth column. Notethat,
whilemostofthelicensees inthe thirdcolumnarecommercialcloudseedingfirms,
otherlicenses are grantedtosomeclientswhoprovide
theirownservicesandonelicensewasgivento a university research
groupforparticipationinaresearchproject)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:06:38 AM
TABLE 13.—WEATHER MODIFICATION PROJECTSIN CALIFORNIA: 1977 WATERYEAR
[FromCalifornia DepartmentofWaterResources, 1977]
Project No.
License
No. Licensee Client Targetarea
1-77-1.
l-77-2(E)
21-77-1
21-77-2
21-77-3(E)..
21-77-4(E)..
21-77-5(E).
21-77-6(E)_
22-77-1.
23-77-1.
23-77-2.
26-77-1.
34-77-1.
44-77 1(E).
NorthAmericanWeatherCon
suHants.
Santa Barbara Municipal Air
port, Goleta, Calif.
NorthAmericanWeatherCon
sultants.
Southern
Co.
California Edison Upper San
watershed.
Joaquin River
Atmospherics, Inc
Calif.
Fresno,
.do
Nevada Irrigation District in
cooperation with Pacific
Gas & Electric Co.
Kings River Conservation
District.
do KaweahDelta Water ConservationDistrict.
Yolo County Flood Control
and Water Conservation
District, Lake County,
SonomaCounty, Mendocino
County, andPacific Gas &
Electric Co., Yolo County,
Solano County Flood Control
and Water Conservation
District.
.do Los Angeles Department of
Waterand Power.
21 do KernCounty
21 do.. Desert Research Institute,
Universityof Nevada.
22
23
26
43
SanBernardinoValleyMunicipal
Water District, San
Bernardino, Calif.
PacificGas& Electric Co., San
Francisco, Calif.
..do
SanBernardinoValley Municipal
WaterDistrict.
Upper Middle YubaRiver and
north sideSouth YubaRiver
aboveSpauldingDam.
UpperKings River watershed.
KaweahRiver watershed.
Clear Lake, Indian Valley
Reservoir watersheds in
LakeCountyandaddedlater
portions of Mendocino
County and that portion of
the Eel River drainage in
Lake Countyto all of that
county. Portions of Yolo
County and the watershed
above Lake Berryessa in
NapaCounty.
East slopesof the Sierra from
southwestof Lone Pine to
the southern portions of
MonoBasin.
KernRiveraboveIsabellaDam.
Higher elevations of Tahoe
Basin and the Walker River
drainagebasin.
UpperSantaAnawatershed.
PacificGas& ElectricCo LakeAlmanordrainagebasin.
.do.
SantaClara ValleyWaterDistrict,
SanJose, Calif.
EnvaidsInc., Stockton, Calif..
Desert ResearchInstitute Energy
and Atmospheric Environmental
Center, University
of Nevada System,
Reno, Nev.
Sacramento Municipal Utility
District, Sacramento, Calif.
Joe Warburton, Desert ResearchInstitute,
Reno, Nev.
Marin Municipal Water District,
Corte Madera, Calif.
Institute of Earth, Planetary
andLife Sciences, Los Angeles,
Calif.
University of Washington,
DepartmentofAtmospheric
Science, Seattle, Wash.
Weather Modification, Inc.,
Bowman, N. Dak.
45 Mr. Jack VanZandt, Tehachapi,
Calif.
46 Weather Consultants, Inc.
Santa Barbara, Calif.
SantaClara ValleyWaterDis-
trict.
Licenseeinactivethis year...
do.
Sacramento Municipal Utility
District.
Licensee inactive this year
[see 21-77-6(E)[.
Licenseeinactivethis year
.do.
Transportanddiffusion studies
for U.S. Bureauof Reclamation.
California Department of
WaterResources.
Licenseeinactive this year..
do.
UpperMokelumneRiverwatershed.
SantaClara County.
None.
Do.
UpperAmericanRiver.
ISee 21-77-6CE).]
None.
Do.
AmericanRiver Basin.
Summercumulus programin
the mountains and uplands
of Mendocino County and
Mariposa Countynorthward.
Forashort periodoperations
were also carried out over
the KernRiver drainage.
None.
Do.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:06:44 AM
igure3.—California weathermodification target areas, Oct. 1, 1976, through
Sept. 30, 1977. "E" following project numberindicates emergencyproject.
(FromCalifornia DepartmentofWaterResources, 1977.)
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:06:55 AM
igure4.—Target areas for seven weathermodification projects conductedin
California for (a) wateryear1975(Oct. 1, 1974, throughSept. 30, 1975), and
(b) wateryear1976(Oct. 1, 1975, throughSept. 30, 1976). (FromCalifornia
DepartmentofWaterResources, 1975 and1976.)
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:07:21 AM
ABLE14—SUMMARYOF THE KANSAS CUMULUSPROJECT (KANCUP) EXPERIMENTS
[From Kostecki: WeatherModification Activitiesin Kansas, 1972-77, 1977]
Project Objectives Assessment1
KANCUP1972, Aug. 5 to
Sept. 30 (cost $95,000,
fiscal year 1973).
KANCUP1973, Aug. lb to
Oct. 5 (cost 558,000, fiscal
year 1974).
KANCUP1974, Apr. 5 to
June8 (cost $54,000, fiscal
year 1974).
Assumingtechnology works, seed for
rain increase; experimentwith both
silver iodide (Agl) and hygroscopic
materials(salt); test groundrelease
of materials; inform general public
aboutprojectandtechnology.
Verify computer modelsof cloud processes;
seedselectively with Agl and
salt; assess useof local pilots and
aircraft; inform general publicabout
projectandtechnology.
Assess minimumoperational requirements;
seed with Agl andsalt using
randomizedcontrols; evaluate characterandfrequencyof
opportunities
in spring compared to summer;
infcrm general public about project
andtechnology.
Opportunitiesdifficult to predict and recognize;
positive, predicted responseto Agl on2 of 16
days(20 percentof seededcells); saltseeding
only occasionally encouraging; moderate
response on only1 of 11 days (10 percentof
seeded cells); ground-based seeding unreliable;
not enough attention given to control
clouds.
Models helpful; seeding frequently produced
predicted response; positive, predicted responseto
Agl on7 of 14 days (42 percentof
seededcells); however, marginal response on
5 of the same7 days; salt seeding on only 2
days; moderate response from 33 percent of
seeded cells; design and instrumentation
inadequate; local pilots need experienced
guidanceto beeffective.
Selective seeding sometimes produced desired
response; positive responseto Agl on8 of 13
days; however, marginal response on6 of the
same8 days; moderate resoonseto salt seeding
on1 of 2 days; springtime cloud systems
usually more organized but seedabilily less
predictable; design and instrumentation
inadequatefor remaininguncertainties)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:07:38 AM
ble15.
Meteorology, University of
Kansas.
Departmentof Geology, UniversityofKansas.
KansasAgricultural, ExperimentStation.
Various Federal, State, and
localagencies.
82
Ibid., p. 2.
83
Seech. 5, p. 258.
84
Seep. 263.
85
Kostecki, "WeatherModification Activities in Kansas 1972-77," 1977, p. 5.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 9:57:35 PM
Thepolicy ofthe Statetowardweathermodificationissummarized
asfollows
:
Thelegislative assembly finds that weather modification affects the public
health, safety, andwelfare, andthat, properly conducted, weathermodification
operations can improvewaterquality andquantity, reducelossesfromweather
hazards, andprovide economicbenefits for the peopleoftheState. Therefore, in
the publicinterest, weathermodification shall be subjectto regulationandcontrol,
andresearchanddevelopmentshallbeencouraged. Inordertominimizepossible
adverseeffects, weathermodification operations shall be carried on with
proper safeguards, andaccurate informationshall be recorded concerning such
operations andthe benefits obtained therefrom by the peopleof the State.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 9:58:53 PM
Permitsare requiredforeachprojecttobe conductedbyalicensee
andmaybe issued followingsatisfactory application for a permit,
publiccommentandpossible hearings, recommendationbythedirectoroftheWeatherModificationBoard,
andfinal actionbytheboard.
Information accompanyingthe application mustinclude the applicant'sXorthDakotalicensenumber
;
dataonanyprevioussuspension,
revocation, orrefusalofpermits; registrationtodobusinessinNorth
Dakota; registration of pilots andaircraft withthe North Dakota
Aeronautics Commission; evidence offinancial responsibility; anda
completedescription ofthe operationalplan, whichincludes:
1.
Thenatureandobjectoftheoperation
;
2. Thelegal descriptionof. andamapshowingthe operations
areaandthetargetarea;
3.
Theapproximatestarting date of the operationandits anticipatedduration
;
•i.
Thekindofseedingagent(s) intendedforuseandtheanticipatedrateoftheiruse
;
5.
Alistofequipmentwhichwillbeusedandthemethod(s) of
seedingforwhichtheywillbeused
;
6.
Anemergency shutdownprocedure, whichstates conditions
underwhichoperationswillbesuspendedbecauseofpossibledangerto
the public health, safety, andwelfare orto the environment;
7.
Themeansbywhichtheoperationplanswillbeiumlemented
andcarriedout, suchasthelocationofthemainoperationaloffice
and anyotherofficesusedin connection withthe operation: the
location ofgroundequipmentsuchas seedinggenerators, radar,
andevaluationinstrumentation; thenumberandkindsofaircraft
whichwillbeused; andthe extenttowhichweatherdatawillbe
madeavailable tothelicenseesandother personnel carryingout
the project; and
8.
Howconduct of the operation will interact with or affect
otherweathermodificationoperations.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 9:59:22 PM
Figure5.—Countiesin North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesotain which
operational weathermodification projects were conducted during1975. (The
cross-hatched areaindicates the approximatetarget areafor a researchproject.)
(FromSchock. 1977.)
Figure 6.—Countiesin North Dakota. South Dakota, and Minnesotain which
operational weathermodification projects wereconducted during1976. (From
Schock. 1977.)
)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 9:59:53 PM
Figure7.—CountiesinNorthDakota, SouthDakota, andMinnesota which were
partially or totally includedin weathermodification target areas during the
years 1951 through1976. Thenumbersindicate thenumberof seasons during
thattimeperiod that a givencountyincludedtargetareasforweathermodificationprojects.
(FromSchock, 1977.)
)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 10:00:25 PM
igure8.—Twenty-six counties in South Dakota which contracted with the
StateWeatherControlCommissionin thefirstyearof the statewide weather
modificationprogramduringthe1972operatingseason. (FromDonnan, Pellett,
Leblang, andRitter, 1976.)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 10:00:28 PM
igure9.—Forty-six countiesin SouthDakotawhichcontracted with the State
WeatherModification Commission andparticipated in the statewide weather
modificationprogramduringthe1974operatingseason. (FromDonnan, Pellett,
Leblang, andHitter, 1976.)
)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 10:01:07 PM
Importantamongthe privateinstitutions concerned with weather
modificationaretheprofessionalorganizationsofwhichresearchand
operationalweathermodifiersandotherinterestedmeteorologistsare
members. These include the AmericanMeteorological Society, the
WeatherModification Association, andthe IrrigationandDrainage
DivisionoftheAmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers. Inaddition, the
NorthAmericanInterstateWeatherModification Council (discussed
inthepreviouschapter) isanorganizationwhosemembershipconsists
ofgovernmentsofU.S. StatesandCanadianProvincesandthegovernmentof
Mexico, whichserves as a forumfor interstate coordinationandexchangeofinformationonweathermodification.
Twoprofessionalorganizations,
theWeatherModificationAssociationandthe
AmericanMeteorologicalSociety, willbediscussedinthischapter.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 10:03:20 PM
ederal
agencies haveat sometime contracted with such private companies
aswellaswithuniversities, theprincipalsponsorof researchprojects
usingthesecontractorsinrecentyearshasbeentheBureauofReclamation
throughits atmospheric waterresources management program
(Project Skywater). Someof these commercial organizations, who
have performed various services for "Skywater" are identified in
table 8inchapter5.18 Priorto reduction of weathermodificationresearchactivitiesinthe1970'
s, theDepartmentofDefensewasamajor
sponsorof contracted research withindustrialandacademic weather
modificationgroups.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 10:04:05 PM
eatherModification Association
Recentlythe following fourstated purposesof theWeatherModificationAssociation(
WMA) weregivenintestimony
:
19
1. Promotionof research, development, andunderstandingof
weathermodificationforbeneficialuses
;
2. Encouraging and promotingthe highest standards of conduct,
includingcertification of individual membersqualified to
executefieldexperimentsandoperationsinweathermodification
;
3. Serving as a clearinghouse and dissemination agent for
weathermodificationorientedliteratureandinformation; and
4. Assuminganactive roleandmaintaininga strongvoicein
theproductionanddisseminationofpolicystatementsconcerning
allaspectsofweathermodificationpractice.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:09:39 AM
The1973AMSpolicy statementis reproducedinappendixO;
itsummarizesthestatusofplannedweather
modification, inadvertentweathermodification, publicissues, andrecommendationsfor
furtheractivities, notingthatchanges which had
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:09:49 AM
occurredsince the previous 1967 statementhaddictated such anupdate.
32.
SincetheofficialAMSposition ofthesocietyisthatall policy
statementsarevalidonlyfor3yearsafterissue, thereistechnicallyno
officialAMSstatementonweathermodification. The1973statementis
currently beingreevaluatedandrevised; however, nomajorchanges
arecontemplated.
3)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:10:07 AM
Theframeof reference
fortheAMScommittee onweathermodification
follows
:
Establishedin1968topromoteandguidethesociety'scontributions
totheincreasinglyimportantfieldofweathermodification, thiscommitteeisresponsibleforkeepingabreastofoneofthemorechallenging
andpromisinginterfacesbetweenmeteorologyandsociety. Thefunctionsofthiscommitteearethefollowing
:
1.
Toserve astheofficialarmtorelatethesociety tothelargesegmentsof
the publicwhoare affected by, interestedin, or concerned
aboutweathermodification.
2.
Todevelopandupdateofficialpolicystatementsonweathermodificationasmaybeneededbythesociety.
3.
Toplanandoverseethesociety'smajormeetingsandconferences
onweathermodification.
4.
Toprovideaplatformfor atmosphericscientistsandotherspecialiststo
discusstheresultsoftheirresearchandtodevelopgeneral
guidelinesforfutureresearchinweathermodification.
5.
Toadvisethesociety of currentactivities, trends, andprospects
forweathermodificationbymeansofanannualreporttothesociety's
ScientificandTechnologicalActivitiesCommission.
6.
Topromoteadvancementinthebroaderaspectsofweathermodificationincluding:
(a) thesocietal utilization, planning, andmanagementofweathermodification;
(b) experimentaldesignandevaluation,
simulation, andprediction, andmodification technology; (c) technological
mitigation of weather hazards; and (d) the use of land
andenergyresourcesto achievemoredesirable responsesin weather
andclimate.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 10:06:51 PM
Defense Departmentaircraft workall weatherpatterns in the mid-Atlantic
States. Onesection ofheavyconcentrationis the southerntier ofPennsylvania
counties; accordingto the Federal Aviation agency, there are asmanyas 160
flights in a twenty-fourhourperiod. Theseaircraft disperseice nuclei atalmost
infinity concentrations[sic] andinjectit into the atmosphere, starting 24to 48
hours before weatherpatterns moveinto the area. This seeding will dissipate
allsummercumulistorms. In the winter, snowsarechangedinto rain withthe
possibility of someincrease of precipitation. Thisadditional winterrain helps
makethe annual precipitation record look decent. However, rain during the
winter leaches the soil of fertility andseverely erodes cropfields. Snowis so
desperately neededfor a coverto preventthisdamageas well as protectionto
preventheavingofperennialssuchasalfalfa.
53
)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 10:07:20 PM
Pennsylvaniahasearneda reputationoflawlessnessrelativeto cloudseeding.
ThepasttwoSecretaries ofAgriculturehaveboth stymiedall efforts toregulate
weathermodification. ThePennsylvania State University has engagedin blackmail
activities against those who wantthe lawenforced, have conductedresearchin
contemptof the law andlied aboutthe outcomeof theirownresults
of cloudseeding. Thesevarious agencieshaveallhelpedto obstructlawenforcementin
the StateofPennsylvania: Departmentof Agriculture, BureauofAviation,
FederalAviationAgency, FederalBureauofInvestigation, thePennsylvania
State University, andall branchesof the Federal Governmentwhohaveor are
doingcloudseedingwork. AmeteorologicalWatergate!
)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 10:07:23 PM
here*s no question that during a dry season, cloud seeding aggravatesconditions
to producedrought, andduringa wetcycle, it triggers even morerain
andprobablyfloods.
55
)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 10:08:09 PM
Accordingto complaintsweget, the patternis stillremainingasit didin the
early 1960's. Whena thunderstorm appearsto the west oris starting to build
up,
aplanewillmoveinmysteriouslyoutofnowhere, andmaybeflyonceortwice
)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 10:08:14 PM
long the leading edgeof the thunderstorm, disappear, andthe thunderstorm
justpractically dissipates.
5)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 10:08:39 PM
Ina recentarticle contributed bythe Tri-State Natural Weather
Associationto a nationally circulated publicationdevotedto organic
agriculture, the followingevils, supposedly brought on by weather
modification, werecataloged
:
1. Cloudseedinghasbeenresponsible forthegreat5-yeardrought
intheNortheastUnitedStates.
2. Isolated sections in the Northeast haveexperienced18 years of
droughtduetocloudseeding.
3. Weatherdisturbances in the South Atlantic [sic] have been
eliminated andhas reduced[sic] theeast coast's rainfallby30 percent—
rain thatisneededif agricultureis tobesuccessful.
4. Theaveragedairyfarmerontheeastcoast, livinginanareaof
cloudseeding, hasaveragedanetfinanciallossbecauseofcloudseeding.
5. Crop production losses in Franklin County, Pa., alone have
amountedto$50million.
6.
Wheneffects of seeding wearoff, cloudbursts occur, causing
floods, destroyingcrops, buildings, and drowningpeopleas well as
livestock.
7. Seedinghasbeenresponsible for theserious air pollution problems.
8. Mentalretardation andinsanity are traceable to cloud seeding
chemicals.
9. Poisoningofalllivingmatterisdirectlyrelatedtocloudseeding.
10. Emphysemais three times higher in areas of heavy cloud
seeding.
11. Cancerisvirulentlyoutofproportion.
12. Financiallosses to agriculture andrelated industries runinto
thebillions.
13. Foresttreesaswellascultivatedorchardsaredyingfromchemicalreactionstakingplaceintheairduetotheadditionofcloudseedingagents.
14. Theatmosphere has been rendered completelybiologicallyincompatiblewithalllivingmatter,
whichincludesanimals, plants, and
humans.57
Tri-StatereportedthatithasrequestedthePresidentoftheUnited
States toannounceabanonall cloud seedingonorovertheAppalachianMountainsandtheAtlantic
Coastal Plainfor3years, oruntil
aFederalregulatorycommissionisestablished, inorderto"permitthe
economytorecover."
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:11:22 AM
Figure1.—Nationsinwhichweathermodification (rainenhancementor hail
suppression) has been employed duringall or portions of the 1946-73 period.
(FromChangnou, Present and FutureofWeatherModification, 1975.)
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:11:34 AM
Table1.—Weathermodification projects reported, by country, through the
WorldMeteorological Organization Register, with U. S. projects deleted. (See
keyatendof table for explanationof columns.) (AdaptedfromWMORegister
of National WeatherModification Projects, 1976, andaddendum.)
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:11:44 AM
410
v
al Rainfall SEnanceaent
ect
6
10.7\I
flood control by cloud feting
Sonore Projeot
Artificial rainfall
PHILIPPHBB
ulatioooperation
Project Olap-Clan
6-}0,
o
102.5 S
116.5°W
State
apgro.
it
i) G/B gen (42) Agl
ii) Air gen (5)
Agl at 600 g/h
C/B gen (6) agl at 150g/h
(1) C/B gen(40)
Agl at 50 g/h
(ii) C/B gen aobile
(5)
Agl at 150 g/h
(lii) Air diepersal at
cloud base (1000
2000a)
(i) C/B gen (J2)
Agl at 50 g/h
(ii) C/B gen mobile (2)
Agl at 150 g/h
(iii) Air diapereal at
cloud base (1000-2000.)
Air dispersal CaCl
solution at 450a'/ain
oloud tops or in cloud
at
5000.
C/B
genW4
I/AgI
C/B butane-fired (5) and
electric arc (5) gen eacl
gen Agl 5-7 g/h
0/B butane-fired gen (9)
Agl at 6 g/h, Jh each of
50 seeding days
,
Air spraying at baae
cu/ac (ieO0-2BOOa)
Agl and Pbl solution
20-40 1/h
Air flares in eu cong.
(5000->800ai)
Air flares Agl
Air gen Agl 0.16-0.2?
l/.in
Air dispersal Agl in
clouds at leap. 7 to
-12°C (5500-bOOO»)
Air diepersal CO
Air dispersal Agl 5.5g/«
in cold clouds (about
-4°C or 5OOO-55O0.)
Air dispersal laCl in
nanclouds at about
2750
Through
Apr-Oct
50 g/b;
37(.Praj)
47(fle
".)
)
(Highlight comment Steve
7/10/2015 5:11:47 AM
411
SPAI1
B
w
il experiment: ValleEl
Levant
e
SHFP (randomized anti-
CTPOH Of SOTIgT SOCIALIST BXFTJBLICS
») 3500
B •) 4500
2750
7300
e a) 8900
I a) 5«70
H 4580
E 6250
H 3000
FE •) 10000
R.) 10000
- ditto
Soodlag: Co for
additional pptn
Wlntar cloud ••disc
for additional pp-tn
42-J3°»J
Georgian BSB
Tadihlakay
H=Hailsuppression. ment.
L= Lightningsuppression.
Col.
2—Approximatesize of project area: Areagivenin squarekilometers; (a) indicates
overallarea, (b) targetarea.
Col.
4—Locationof project area: In somecases wherecoordinates of several points delineating
the area weregiven, these havebeen replaced bya single pointat approximately
the centerof thearea. Townsandislandsmaybe denoted byname; A/P= airport.
Col.
7—Natureof national organization sponsoringproject (indicated by abbreviations)
asfollows:
Agr= Agricultural.
Met= Meteorological.
Erg= Energy. <
P)— Private.
For= Forestry. Res= Research.
(G)= Governmental. Ski= Wintersports.
Hyd= Hydrological. Tpn= Transportation.
Ind= Industrial.
Col.
S—Apparatus, agents, dispersal rates, etc.: Chemical andSI symbols are used. Abbreviationsareasfollows:
Air= Airborne/Aircraft. Pyro= Pyrotechnic.
G/B= Ground-based. R/C= Remote-controlled,
)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 10:11:24 PM
heresults ofthisinsecurity
werediscussedbyEdithBrownWeiss, ascientistandproponentof
passage of a treaty banningthe use of weather modification as a
weaponofwar, duringhertestimonybeforetheSenateForeignRelationsCommittee
:
Accepting any environmental modification techniques as legitimate weapons
underminesthe already shakydistinction betweenconventional andunconventionalmeansofwarfare.
Itmakesacceptabletheideaofusingtechniquesofenvironmentalmodification
asaweaponofwar..
. .
Eventhechancethat Stateswill
beable to use sometechniques for hostile purposes withoutviolating the Conventions
casts suspicion on the development anduse of weathermodification
technology for peaceful purposes. In the longrun, itcan endangerthe international
cooperative programsin weatherforecasting andatmospheric research,
whichhelpustounderstandanduseweatherto benefitmankind.
)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 10:14:24 PM
Typhoonandseriousstormmodification
Anotherareaofweathermodificationactivity, typhoonandserious
stormmodification,
hasalsobeenanareaofconcerntotheWMO. Severalefforts
atlearningaboutandcontrollingtyphoonsortropicalcyclones
havebeenjointly
sponsoredbytheWMO. Togetherwiththe
EconomicCommissionforAsiaandtheFarEastoftheUnitedNations
(nowthe Economic andSocial Commissionfor Asia andthe
Pacific),
theWMOhasestablishedaTyphoonCommitteewhichconcentrates
on improvingcivil preparedness against typhoon damage.
Becausesolittle isunderstood abouttyphoons, mostoftheactivities
undertaken have been research andthe collection andanalysis of
meteorologicalinformationabouttropicalweather.
AWMOsponsoredTechnicalConferenceonTyphoonModification,
whichwasheldinManilainOctoberof1974, endorseda24-hourlimit
on typhoonmodification experiments, which wouldpermit experimentalseeding
oftyphoonsifthey werenot expectedto reach land
within 24hours.
23A1972
resolution of
theUNGeneral
Assembly
praisedtheeffortsoftheWMOinthisareaandrequestedtheWMOto
keeptheUNinformedofprogressinitstropicalcycloneproject.)
(Highlight comment Steve
8/10/2015 10:15:11 PM
DECLARATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON THE HUMAN
ENVIRONMENT
Thedeclarationconsistsofapreambleand26principlesofconduct
intendedto serve as guides forstates in dealing with environmental
problemsof international significance. Principles 21 and22particularly
ali'ect weathermodificationactivities. Principle 21 deals with
state responsibility fordamageto the environmentof othernations,
andprinciple22callsonstatestocooperateindevelopinginternational
lawregardingliabilityandcompensationfor suchdamage. Thetwo
principles are
:
"Principle 21
"Stateshave, inaccordancewiththeCharteroftheUnitedNations
andthe principle of international law, the sovereignrightto exploit
theirownresourcespursuanttotheirownenvironmentalpolicies, and
the responsibility to insure that activities withintheir jurisdiction
orcontroldonotcausedamagetotheenvironmentof otherstatesor
ofareasbeyondthelimitsofnationaljurisdiction.
"Principle 22
"Statesshall cooperateto developfurthertheinternationallawregardingliability
andcompensationfor the victims of pollutionand
otherenvironmentaldamagecausedbyactivities withinthejurisdiction
orcontrol ofsuchstates to areasbeyondtheir jurisdiction."-
T
ACTION PLANFOR THEHUMANENVIRONMENT
Theactionplanconsistsofsome200recommendationsfor national
and international
action—a framework for future environmental
agreements. Althoughmuchoftheactionplanrelatestoweathermore
generallyandpollution oftheairandwater, onerecommendationi)
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articular appliesto climatemodification. Recommendation70 reads
as follows
:
It is recommendedthat Governments be especially mindfulof activities in
whichthereisanappreciableriskofeffectonclimate; and
(a) Carefully evaluate the likelihood andmagnitudeof climaticeffects and,
to the maximumextent feasible, disseminate their findings before embarking
on suchactivities
;
(b) Consultfully other interested states whenactivities carrying a risk of
sucheffectsarebeingcontemplatedorimplemented.
28
Indiscussingthis provision, Senators ClaibornePell andClifford
Case, membersof the U.S. delegation to the Conference, criticized
whattheysawasanamendmentwhich"considerablyweakened'' the
provision. This amendment, introduced bythe United States and
adoptedbythe Conference, addedthephrase"tothemaximumextent
feasible" tosection (a) asprintedabove. Concerningthisamendment,
theSenators'reportstates
:
TheU.S. amendmentappearstoprovidealoopholewherebyanycountrycould
conduct covert military weathermodification operations without any formof
international control orresponsibility. This, wefeel, is contraryto a resolution
whichweand14other Senatorshaveintroducedin the Senate whichexpresses
thesenseof the SenatethattheU.S. shouldseektheagreementofother governmentstoaproposedtreatyprohibitingtheuseofanyenvironmentalmodification
activityasaweaponofwar. Weadamantlyopposetheuseofenvironmentaltechniques
asweaponsofwarandstronglyurgethe Administrationto actively promotethenegotiationandratificationofsuchatreaty.
29
Theresolutionreferredtointheabovequotation, andthediscussion
surroundingitspassage, are discussedinthesectiononcongressional
activities.
)
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ationalWeatherModificationActof197646
TheNationalWeatherModificationPolicyActof1976 (PublicLaw
94-490, Oct. 13, 1976) statedasitspurposeto"developa comprehensiveandcoordinated
national weathermodification policyanda national
programof weathermodification research anddevelopment."
This wouldinclude the developmentof "both national andinternationalmechanismsdesignedtominimizeconflictswhichmayrisewith
respectto the peacefuluses ofweathermodification." Thelawcalled
fora studywhichshall include "a reviewofthe internationalimportanceandimplicationsofweathermodificationactivitiesbytheUnited
States," areviewandanalysisofthenecessityandfeasibilityofnegotiating
aninternational agreement concerning the peaceful uses of
weathermodification, and"formation of one or moreoptions for a
modelinternationalagreementconcerningthepeacefulusesofweather
modification andthe regulation of national weathermodification."
Finally, thelawrequired that the Secretary ofCommercereportto
theCongresswithin1yearon, amongotherthings, the international
agreementspecifiedabove.
Inresponseto this directive fromthe Congress, the Secretary of
Commerceestablished the WeatherModification Advisory Board
whichhasrecentlybegunholding meetingsto developthis national
policyandprovidetheSecretarywithinformationnecessarytomake
thereporttoCongress.
)
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TheU.S. Governmentisurgedto presentfor adoption by the United Nations
General Assembly a resolution dedicatingall weather modification efforts to
peaceful purposes andestablishing, preferably within the frameworkof international
nongovernmentalscientific organizations, an advisory mechanismfor
consideration of weathermodification problems of potential international concernbeforetheyreachcriticallevels.
)
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LIABILITY FORWTEATHERMODIFICATION
Ifadroughtoraseverestormoccursafterweathermodificationattempts
haveoccurred, issues concerningliability for damagesmay
arise. Theseissueswouldincludecausationaswellastheapplication
ofanumberoftheoriesoftortrecoveryincludingnuisance, strictliability,
trespass, andnegligence. Otherbasesofliabilitymightbepresentdependingontheparticularfactsandcircumstancesattendingany
specific incident. Inaddition, issues concerningairandwaterpollutioncouldberaised.
Beforeageneraldiscussion oftheseissuesisbegun,
itwouldbehelpfultoexaminebriefly Statestatuteswhichdiscussliability.
TenStatestatuteswere found whichdiscussliability forweather
modification. Thesestatutes vary widely in effect andcomplexity.
Eightofthese statutes specificallyprovidethatthe Stateisimmune
fromliability.23
Fivestatuteswerefoundwhichprovidethatobtainingalicenseforweathermodificationisnotadefensetolegalactions.
24
Thestatutesonweathermodification are stated nottoaffectprivate
contractual orlegal obligations in fourStates.
25
Threestatutes provide
that weathermodificationis not ultrahazardous26 whilethree
State statutes providethat weathermodificationis not a trespass27
or, inoneState, notapublicoraprivatenuisance.
28Inaddition,
Colo-
)
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rado andIllinois statutes providethatfailure to obtain alicense or
a permit for weather modification constitutes negligence29 perse
while Wisconsin provides that unregulated weather modification
operationsshall besubjecttosummaryabatementpublicnuisances.30
Illinois and Xorth Dakotaalso provide that a person adversely
affectedbyweathermodificationshall not be preventedbyastatute
on weathermodificationfromrecoveringdamagesresultingfromintentional
harmfulactions or negligent conduct.
31
Finally, WestVirginia
provides that anylicenseewhocauses a droughtor a heavy
downpourorstormwhichcausesdamagetolandasdeterminedbythe
WestVirginiaAeronauticsCommissionshallcompensatefarmersand
propertyownersforsuchdamage.
)
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In determining whethercloud seedingis an abnormallydangerousactivity,
ithasbeenstatedthatcourtswouldconsider
thefollowingfactors:
(a) Whethertheactivityinvolvesahighdegreeofriskofsome
harmtotheperson, land, orchattelsofothers
;
(b) Whetherthegravityoftheharmwhichmayresultfromit
islikelytobegreat
;
(c) Whethertherisk cannot be eliminatedbytheexercise of
reasonablecare
;
(d) Whethertheactivityisnotamatterofcommonusage;
(e) Whetherthe activityis inappropriateto the place where
it iscarriedon; and
(/) Thevalueoftheactivitytothecommunity.3)
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Nocase has beenfoundwherea courtcharacterizedweathermodification
as ultrahazardous andtherefore subject to strict liability;
however, thismayoccur in the future particularly with regardto
certain types of attempted weathermodification suchas thatinvolvinghurricanes.
)
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U.S. 256 (1945), indicatesthattheflightofanairplaneoveraperson's
landwouldnotnecessarilybeconsideredatrespass. However, itcould
be arguedthat therelease ofparticles into theairbyanairplaneor
bya weathermodificationstationonthegroundmightbeconsidered
atrespassiftheyinvadedtheplaintiff'sland. Itcouldalsobeargued
thatrain, hail or otherprecipitation producedbyweathermodificationwouldbeatrespasssinceitdidnotfalltherenaturallybutwas
producedartificially.45
Theseargumentscouldbesupportedbyciting
various cases which have founda trespass even whereinvisible or
microscopic particles haveentered ontheplaintiffs land they have
causedharm.
46
)
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Noindividual hastheright to determinefor himselfwhathis needs are and
produce those needs byartificialmeansto the prejudice anddetriment of his
neighbors. However, wefeel thatthis cannot be anunqualified right. Weather
modification takesmanyforms andproduces, or appearsto produce, desirable
effects. Forexample, thereis fog suppression, lightning suppression, andhail
suppression. In additon, cloud seeding has been used andwill continue to be
usedtoproduceraintorelievethewatershortageinoururbanareas. Wefeelthen
thatweathermodificationactivitiesundertakeninthepublicinterests, andunder
the direction and control of governmental authority should and must be
permitted.
51
Theconsent of a landownerto weathermodification which may
affecthislandmayalsoberaisedasadefensetoliability. Inaddition,
aweathermodifiercouldalsoattempttoraise asadefensethepublic
policyagainstwaste.
)
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ETHODSOF CONTROLLING WEATHERMODIFICATION
Thereareseveralmethodsbywhichweathermodificationisorcould
>e controlled. Theseinclude State orlocal regulation, regulationby
)rofessionalassociationsandFederalregulation. Twenty-eightStates
\rere found which have sometypeof statute pertainingto weather
nodification. Thesestatutesdiffergreatlyintheircontent. Hawaii, for
xample, simplystates that theboardof landandnaturalresources
hallhavethepower"Toinvestigateandmakesurveysofwaterreources,
includingthepossibilityandfeasibility ofinducingrainby
rtificialorothermeans.
.
Ontheotherhand, someStates, suchas
Colorado, havecomprehensivelawswhichincludesuchprovisionsas
declarationofgeneralpolicy, licensing, operationsaffectingweather
notherStates, legalrecourse, andjudicialreview.64Thebasisforthe
nactmentofthis typeoflegislationis the police power. Thepolice
owerenablesaStatetotakeactiontoprotectandpromotethehealth,
ifety, moralsandgeneralwelfareofitspeople6)
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Warpotoers
TheU.S. ConstitutionarticleI, section8, clause1providesinrelevantpartthat"
TheCongressshallhavethePowerTo*
*
provide
for thecommondefence
* "
Inaddition clause 11 provides that
Congressshallhavethepowertodeclarewar. Thesespecificgrantsof
powerhavebeen usedbytheSupremeCourtto upholdcertain congressionalacts.
83TheSupremeCourthasalsofoundthattherewasan
inherentpowertomakewar. InUnitedStatesv. Curtiss-WrightCorp.,
299U.S. 304(1936), theSupremeCourtstated
:
• * *
that the investmentof the Federal GovernmentwiththepowersofexternalsovereigntydidnotdependupontheaffirmativegrantsoftheConstitution.
Thepowertodeclareandwagewar, toconcludepeace, tomaketreaties, tomaintain
diplomatic relations withother sovereignties, if they hadnever been mentionedintheConstitution,
wouldhavevestedintheFederalGovernmentasnecessaryconcomitantsofnationality.
At318.
Itis likely thatthewarpowercouldbeusedto find congressional
powertoregulateweathermodificationsinceweathermodificationhas
potentialmilitaryuse. Also, Congresshasusedthewarpowerasabasis
for the regulation of atomic energy andelectricitv. Forexample, in
Paulingv. McElroy, 164F. Supp. 390 (D.D.C. 1958), aff'd 278F. 2d
252 (I960), cert, denied, 364U.S. 835 (1960), thedistrictcourtfound
that theAtomicEnergyActwasconstitutionalandstated:"TheAct
isavalidexerciseoftheauthorityofCongresstopromoteandprotect
the national defenseandsafetyunderthe constitutionalwarpower."
At393. AndinAshwanderv. TennesseeYalleyAuthority, 297U.S. 288
(1935), theSupremeCourtupheldtheconstructionofWilsonDamas
a valid exercise
" *
bythe Congress ofits war and commerce
powers, thatis. forthepurposesofnational defenseandtheimprovementofnavigation.''
At326.
)
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The commerceclause asit has been interpreted bythe Supreme
CourtwouldprovidesufficientauthorityforCongresstoenactlegislationregulatingweathermodificationactivities.
AlthoughtheSupreme
CourtdidplacecertainlimitationsonthecommerceclauseinNational
LeagueofCities, it isunlikelythatthis casewouldsolimitthereach
ofthecommercepowerastoeffectweathermodificationregulation. As
onecommentatorhas noted
" *
the potential of thecasemaybe
)
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quiterestrained.'-
87
Authorityfortheregulationofweathermodificationmightalso
be foundin otherpowersof Congressincluding the
fiscalpower, warpower, propertypower, andtreatypower. However,
theuseof thesepowersmaynotprovideasfar-reaching authorityas
isgivenunderthecommerceclause. Forexample, undertheproperty
power, Congresswouldbelimitedto regulationofweathermodificationactivitiesonpubliclands.
Somecommentatorshavealso argued
thattheNationalLeagueofCities decisionmayserveto limit other
congressionalpowers, suchasthefiscalpower, hiadditiontolimiting
thecommercepower.
66
ItisunlikelythateveniftheNationalLeague
of
Cities holding were extendedto other sources of congressional
powerthatitwouldaffectweathermodificationregulation.
)
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Asan example of an international approach whichdeals with
weathermodificationinthebroaderconceptofenvironment, onMay
18. 1977, theUnitedStates signedtheConventionontheProhibition
ofMilitaryorAnyOtherHostileUseofEnvironmentalModification
Techniques,95whichwillenterintoforceafterratifiedby20signatory
nations, inwhicheachStateparty"undertakesnottoengagein militaryoranyotherhostileuseofenvironmentalmodificationtechniques
havingwidespread, long-lasting, orsevereeffects asthemeansofdestruction,
damageorinjurytoanyotherStateparty."
Theprimarypractical internationallegalproblemisprobablythat
ofliabilityfortransnationalinjuryordamage. Suchasituationcould
conceivably arise involving the UnitedStates either directly orindirectlyinanumberofgeneralfactsituations
:
1.
Injuryordamageinanothernationcausedbyweathermodification^
activities executed within the UnitedStates;
2.
Injuryordamageinanothernationcausedbyweathermodification
activitiesexecutedinthatnationorathirdnationbythe
UnitedStatesoracitizenoftheUnitedStates
)
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470
,3.
Injuryordamageinanothernationcausedbyweathermodification
activitiesexecutedinanarea notsubject to thejurisdictionofanynation(
e.g., overthehighseas), bytheUnitedStates
oracitizenthereof; and
4. Injuryordamagetoanalienoranalien'spropertywithinthe
UnitedStatescausedbyweathermodificationactivitiesexecuted
withintheUnitedStates.
Differentandhighlycomplexlegalconsiderationsmightbepresent
withanyone(orcombination) ofsuchvariablefactorsas:
1. Thepurposeandmotivationoftheweathermodificationactivity
:
(a) Wasitperformedforpeacefulorhostilepurposes?
(b) Wasit originated for somepublic interest or a private
interest?
2. Theauthorityandcharacterofthe weathermodifier:
(a) Is the weathermodifier a Federalor State governmental
agency, a private party undercontract fromthe Federal or a
State government, or a private party engaged in a private
pursuit?
(b) Hasthe modifiercompliedwithall necessaryprerequisites
surrounding that particular activity (e.g., license, notification,
andenvironmentalimpactstatement) ?
(c) Hastheothernationconsentedtoorrequestedtheweather
modification?
(d) Hastheweathermodifier acted pursuantto the authority
grantedandinacompetentandacceptablemanner?
3. Theforumchosenforcommencementofanylegalaction, andthe
defendant(s) chosen:
(a) Doestheplaintiffhavestandingtobringsuchasuit?
(b) Doestheforumrecognizeacauseofactionuponwhichthe
suitmightbebrought?
(e) Isproperjurisdiction obtainedoverthedefendant(s)?
(d) Ifsuitisbroughtagainsta governmentalentity, is a defenseofsovereignimmunityavailable?
(e) Ifsuit isbroughtin a foreign nation and judgmentobtained,
can or wouldit be recognized andenforceable in the
UnitedStates?
(/) Whataretheconflictsoflawdecisionsoftheforum?
4. Thetypeandextentofinjuryordamagesustained
:
(a) Canit be proventhat the weathermodification activity
causedtheinjuryordamagecomplainedof?
(b) Istheinjuryordamageslightcomparedwithanybenefits
resultingfromthe activity?
(c) Cananyof the injury or damagehavebeen avoided or
foreseen, byeitherparty?
(d) Whatlegalanalogiescanbedrawn)
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CERTAINHOSTILE USES OFWEATHERMODIFICATION AREPROHIBITED
Besidestheprohibition againsttheuse ofenvironmentalmodificationtechniquescontainedintheConventionontheProhibitionofMilitary
orAnyOtherHostileUseofEnvironmentalModificationTechniquesas
tothemilitaryorotherhostileuseofenvironmentalmodification
techniqueshavingwidespread, long-lastingorsevereeffects in
anothernationwhichisapartytothatConvention, othersourcesofinternationallawcanbepointedto
asdeclaringsimilarprinciples. For
example, the InternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross Protocol II
aftertheSecondDiplomaticConferenceoftheReaffirmationandDevelopmentofInternationalHumanitarianLawApplicableinArmed
Conflicts, protectsthenaturalenvironmentfromcombatmethodsthat
causewidespread, long-termandseveredamage. Article28states:"It
isforbiddentoemploymethodsormeansofcombatwhichareintended
ormaybeexpectedtocausewidespread, long-termandseveredamage
to the natural environment."
96
Extremeformsof weathermodification,
ifusedasaweapon, couldarguablyalsobeincontraventionofthe
"lawsofwar" asbeingincontraventionof theprinciples of military
necessity, humanity, proportionality, anddiscrimination.
)
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A)
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NATIONSARERESPONSIBLEFORENVIRONMENTALCONDUCTWHICHCAUSES
INJURYORDAMAGEIN ORTOOTHERNATIONS
Ontheissueofliability, acontinuousflowofinternationaldecisions,
conventions, andpracticesindicatesacceptanceofastandardofstrict
liabilityamongstatesfordamagecausedbyordeprivationsresulting
frommanipulationofenvironmentalvariables. Thisstandardhasbeen
developedbyextension ofthreewell-knowncases: TheTrailSmelter
arbitration, inwhichaninternationaltribunalfoundCanadaliablefor
fumesemanatingfromasmelterlocatedinBritishColumbiaanddoingdamagein
the State ofWashington; the Corfu, Channelcase, in
whichthe International Courtof Justice held Albaniaresponsible
underinternationallawfordamagetoBritishshipsfrommineexplosionsinAlbanianterritorialwaters;
andtheLacLannouxarbitration,
whereitwassaidthatFrancewouldbestrictlyliableif, duetoitshydroelectric
utilization of a Frenchlake, damageresulted to waters
drainingintoSpain. Strictliabilityamongstateshassimilarlyfound
expressionin severalmultilateralconventions. Suchliabilityhasusuallybeenenforcedin
thefirst instancebyandagainststates, leaving
tonationallegalsystemsitsassertiondirectlyagainstprivateparties.97
The Trail Smelter case contains the following often-quoted
language
:
Underprinciplesofinternationallaw, aswellasofthelawoftheUnitedStates,
noStatehastheright touseorpermitthe useofits territoryin suchamanner
astocauseinjurybyfumesin orto theterritory ofanotheror theproperties or
personstherein, whenthecaseisof seriousconsequenceandthe injuryisestablishedbyclearandconvincingevidence."
)
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Regardingeconomic impactsin target areas, the Stanford study
stated:
Theknowneffects onthe target areas are almostuniformlyadverse, withthe
exception of the possible advantages that extra snowfall, particularly at the
beginningoftheseason, mightbringtooperatorsofskiresortsandtheirpatrons.
Althoughthe impact onthe upland grazing industry appearsto benegligible,
increasedcosts ofminingoperationsandtimbercutting (andpossible suspension
of activities); interference withroad, rail, andair transport; andshortening
ofthetourist seasonwouldallhaverepercussionsofanunfavorablesortonthe
economiesof anumberof small towns, particularly in westernColorado.
)
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Conclusions
Thestate of theart of operational weathermodificationprograms
issuchthatmeaningfuleconomicevaluationofsuchactivitiesislimited
to special, localized cases. Asstated byCrutchfield.33
thereis a
needfor substantially greaterknowledgeof: "(1) the processesthat
weseek toalter; (2) themethodsthroughwhichthat alterationcan
be achieved; and(3) the extenttowhichthe resultingeffectscanbe
anticipatedintime, spaceanddegree."
Nevertheless, theeconomicpotentialities areveryattractive. Operatingcostsofcloudseedingareverysmall,
rangingfrom5 to20cents
peracreoftargetarea, andtheneededcapitalequipmentisrelatively
inexpensive. Thefew economicstudies whichare available suggest
possiblebenefit-costratiosrangingupwardto20tol.
34
)
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Several formsofdeliberateweathermodificationappearworthyof
seriousconsiderationoverthenextfewyearstoadecadeorso. Theyinclude
precipitation enhancement (or reduction), hurricane or other
severestorm abatementorothermodification, fogdispersal, hail suppression,
andcontrol oflightning. Thefollowingsectionsattemptto
encapsulatethebest, currentjudgmentabouttheecologicalimpactsor
otheretl'ects of applied weathermodification technologyin each of
these categories.
)
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SummaryandConclusions
Thischapterseekstoreviewanumberofrecentstudiesaimedataddressingandansweringquestions
abouttheecologicaleffectsofvariouskindsofweathermodificationactivity.
Ingeneral, thebodyofdirected
researchwithrespectto theseconcernsis stilllimitedbutsignificantlygreaterthanwasthecaseadecadeorevenlessago.
Economicallysignificantweathermodificationwillalwayshavean
eventualecologicaleffect, although appearanceofthateffectmaybe
delayedorhiddenbysystemresilienceand/orconfoundedbysystem
complexity.
Itwillneverbepossibletopredict"theecologicaleffectsofweather
modification." However, themorepreciselytheweathermodifiercan
specifytheeffectshewillproduceintermsofaveragepercentageincrease
or decrease in precipitation (or other climatic variable), expectedseasonal
distribution ofthechange, expectedyear-to-yeardistributionofthechange,
geographicdistributionofthechange, changes
in relativeformofprecipitation, andthelike, themoreprecisecanbe
theecologist'spredictionoflikelyecologicaleffects.
Ecological effects of weather modification will be the result of
moderateshifts in rates of reproduction, growth, andmortality of
species of plantsandanimalswhichare sensitive to weather. Effects
will rarely, if ever, besuddenorcatastrophicbecauseplantandanimalcommunitiesreacttochangesinclimatemuchmorethanchanges
in weather. Accordingly, those modifications in the weather which
occurwithsignificantregularityovertime—eventuallyconstitutingat
least amicro-climaticshiftofsomedegree—aretheonestowhichbiologicalcommunitieswillreact.
Animalpopulationswill rarelybeaffected directlybyweathermodification
activities but will rather be indirectly affected as their
habitatis altered asvegetativechangesoccur.
T\
r
eathermodification, beingachangeimposedon analreadyvariable
climate, will neverthelesshave aninexorable, if subtle, effecton
long-termstructure ofplantandanimalcommunitiesastheyrespond
toaverageclimaticconditions.
Suchadjustments of plants andanimal communitieswill usually
occurmoreslowlyinregionsofhighlyvariableweatherthaninthose
ofrelatively uniform weatherconditions. Similarly, deliberate precipitation
changeis likely tohavegreaterecologicalimpactin semiaridsystemsandlessinhumidones.
Widespreadcloud seeding couldresult inlocal, temporaryconcentrationsofsilverinprecipitationwhichareofthesameorderofmagnitudeasthenaturalconcentrationinsurfacewaters,
thoughtherates
ofexchangewouldremainmorethananorderofmagnitudesmaller
thanprincipalexchangesfortheaquaticenvironment. Exchangerates
would be manyorders of magnitudesmaller than those affecting
plantsandsoil, evenin localized areasofprecipitationmanagement.
Itis stillarealitythatourlevelofignoranceofecologicaleffectsof
changesinweatherandclimateexceedsourlevelofknowledge.
)
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ThePresident.
TheWJiiteHouse.
DearMr. President: Asauthorsof severalresolutions foroutlawingenvironmentalmodification
as a weaponof war, wenowwrite recommendinggovernmentworkin
the peaceful uses ofsuchmodification that could helpto promoteenergyconservation,
safeguardtheenvironmentandstabilizeagriculturalproduction.
In sendingthese recommendations, wewishtomakeclear thatwesupport
continuedresearch, particularlyintoweathermodificationforpeacefulpurposes,
regardingwhichwebelieve there currently existnumerousopportunitiesforits
applications.
Therole ofweathermodificationin energy conservationwassharply outlined
inarecentexamplewhichcametoourattention. ComingfromBostontoWashington,
a recentflightwasdelayedbybadweatherandaccordingtoonepassenger's
calculations, asmuchfuelwasexhausted around Washingtonwhile the plane
waitedtolandaswasconsumedduringtheentireflightfromBoston. Thisisonly
one exampleof the energycosts of badweather, but weatherconditions being
whattheyare, it isafrequentcase. Researchintofogdissipationisprecisely the
kindofworkwhichcanreducethosecosts.
Weare only beginningto research
andunderstandhowour ownindustrial
development hasinadvertently modified weather andenvironment. Studies are
beginningtoshowdifferencesin temperatureandairquality overurbanandindustrial
areas, whichaffected the immediate environmentas well asinfluence
weatherdownwind.
Thereissufficientgrowingsuspicionthatinadvertentenvironmentalmodification
canhelp produce extremesof weather, suchas drought, to
warrantfurtherinvestigationandresearch.
Theimplicationsofweathermodificationfor agricultureare obviousandvariousefforts
toenhancerainfallhavebeen going onforyears. Theseefforts, however,
needcoordinationandcarefulstudytohelpdeterminewhatapproachesare
productive,
whattypesofweatherformationaremostsusceptibletomodification
andhowmodificationinoneareaaffectsweatherelsewhere. Clearly, thepotential
for
increasedagricultureoutput—bothdomesticallyandworldwide—isgreat.
(503)
)
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Giventhese opportunities, it isunfortunatethatcivilian directed researchhas
beendiffused. Thefiscal 1975 budgetshowsweathermodification projects in six
agencies andadivision by function as follows:
Fiscalyear—
1973 1974 1975
Departmentof Agriculture.
DepartmentofCommerce
Departmentof Defense
Army
366
4,779
(1,209)
160
270
4,673
<...«>
150
4,575
(1,300)
Navy.
Air Force
DepartmentoftheInterior
Departmentof Transportation
National Science Foundation
404
645
6,370
1,067
5,790
399
666
3,900
1,397
4,000
555
745
3 445
1,520
4,270
Total 19,581 15,401 15,270
DIVISION BY FUNCTION
Fiscal year
—
1973 1974 1975 Agencies
Precipitation modification
.
Fogandcloud modification 1.
Hail suppression..
lightningmodification
Hurricaneandseverestormmodification
Social, economic, legal, andecological studies
Inadvertentmodificationofweatherandclimate
Supportandservices.
5,472 3,735
1,541 1,194
2,860 2,000
624 330
1,818 1,741
1,740 1,310
3,252 3,643
2,274 1,475
3,279 DOC, DOI.
1,264 DOD, DOT.
2,100 NSF.
356 DOA, DOD, NSF
1,816 DOC.
1,110 DOI, NSF.
4,398 DOC, DOT, NSF.
937 DOC, DOI, NSF.
Total 19,581 15,401 15,270
)
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Althoughin somerespects the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration
gathers data onall these projects, itdoes notreally function as a
lead agencyor exertsufficient direction, coordinationor control over thecivilian
ormilitaryprojects. Itisclearfromthesecondchart,
furthermore, that considerable
overlapandpossible duplicationexists. Webelieve, however, thatin afield
asdiverseandspeculativeasthis, a greaterdegreeofcentralizationis desirable.
Thissamerecommendationhas beenmadeonanumberof occasions bytheNational
Advisory Committeeon Oceans and Atmosphere:
NACOAfinds that, althoughweappearto stand on the thresholdof practical
weathermodification, and somefacets are operational, in other applications a
sroat dealofcomplexresearchstill needsto be done. Unless thescientificmanpower
andfundingarebetter directed, weassuredlywill continuetomakevery
slow progress towards weathercontrol. NACOAtherefore reiterates its recommendationsoflastyearthat
:
"The manysmall programsin weather modification nowscattered widely
throughthe Federal agencies be focused andcoordinated under NOAA'shead
;
basic cloud physics anddynamicsbe given higherpriority; andthat thelegal,
social, andeconomicimpactofweathermodification be thoroughlyexaminedand
;appropriate regulatory andlicensing legislation be sought." (A Refrort to the
President andthe Congress, NACOA. June29, 1973, pageviii.)
Wealso believeit isparticularly importantthatanysuchcoordination should
bein the handsof a civilian agency; indeed, thatall such research should be
conductedbycivilian agencies.
Considerabledoubthasbeen raisedin the pastoverthe natureofsomeof the
research conducted bytheDefenseDepartmentin theareaofweathermodification.
Youwill recall the not too successful efforts to increase rainfall over the
HoChiMinhTrail several years agoat a cost of $21.G million.
Wehave grave
doubts about the merits ofanyproject such asthis, butweare also concerned
aboutthewayin whichthe incidentwashandled by the Government. Theproject
wasat first
flatly—and repeatedly—denied publicly and before Congress
bytheDepartmentofDefense, but thebasicfactswereultimately concededsome
)
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vearslaterbyformer
DefenseSecretary Lairdin aletter to the Senate forfagn
Relations Committee, whichconfirmedthe
allegations thathadbeen made.
Suchincidentshavegivenrise
tocontinuingconcernonourpartoverthe
scope
of federal research anddevelopment on environmental and weather modifica-
tion Whatis significant aboutthese incidentsis that they continueto occurin
respecttoDefenseDepartmentresearch,
eventhoughDODassertssuchresearch
hasonly peacefulapplications, suchas airport fogdispersal. If thisis the case,
thenitwouldseembothlogicalandappropriatetoplacesuchresearchin
civilian
agencieswhereitcanbecarriedonwiththesamedegreeofprecisionandsuccess,
sinceweapons'applications are notinvolved, andwhereitwouldnotcausenew
suspicionsabouttherealnatureofthework.
Weathermodificationisafield
ofgreatpotential, promisingconsiderablebene-
fits to agriculture andtransportation,
to mentiononly two primeareas of re-
seach. Atthesametimethepotential
military applicationsofweathermodifica-
tionresearchareserious. Lastsummer'sagreementwiththe
SovietUniontomeet
to discuss a banon weather warfareismostencouraging. Wehopethat in the
light of that agreement, youwill beable to give favorable considerationto our
recommendations.
Sincerely,
GilbertGude.
MemberofCongress.
ClaibornePell,
U.S. Senator.
DonaldM. Fraser,
MemberofCongress.
)
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8/10/2015 10:35:36 PM
on. Gilbert Gude,
Houseof Representatives,
Washington, D.C.
DearMr. Gude: ThePresidenthasaskedmetorespondtoyourletter
ofApril
23, 1975, inwhichyourecommendedacoordinatedprogramofgovernmentalwork
inthepeacefulusesofweathermodification.
Aconsiderableamountof
careful thoughtandstudy has been devotedto the
subjectofweathermodificationandwhattheFederalroleand,
in particular, the
role ofvariousagenciesshouldbein this area. Asaresult ofthis study, wehavedeveloped
a general strategy for addressing weathermodificationeffortswhich
webelieveprovidesforanappropriatelevelofcoordination.
Forthe mostpart, as yourletter points out, weare just beginningto understand
thepossibilities forweathermodificationandthe complexities that areinvolved.
Inadvertentmodificationofweather andenvironmentthroughindustrial
developmentisindeedaprimeexample.
Therearemanyproblems generated by various weather phenomenasuch as
lossof crops throughhaildamageanddestruction of property caused byhurricanes
andflooding. In manycases the approaches to solving the problems
mayor maynot be best met through weather modification techniques. Other
solutions such as communitypreparedness, better land use planning, andprotectivemeasuresmaymoreeffectivelyandrealistically
achievetheobjectives.
Forthis reason, webelieve thattheagencywhichischargedwitha particular
nationalproblemshould be giventhelatitude to seek the bestapproachor solution
to theproblem. Insomeinstancesthismayinvolveaformofweathermodification,
whileinother instancesother approachesmaybemoreappropriate.
While wewouldcertainly agree that somelevel of coordination of weather
modification researchefforts is logical, wedonot believe that a program under
the direction of anyonesingle agency's leadershipis either necessary or desirable.
Wehavefoundfromour studythat the typesofscientific research conducted
byagencies aresubstantially different in approach, techniques, andtypeof
equipmentemployed, depending on the particular weather phenomenabeings
addressed. Forexample, thereis verylittle incommonbetween hurricane suppressionandattemptingto
increase rain or snow. Fogdispersalefforts havealmost
nothingin commonwith any other weathermodification. Each type of
weathermodification requiresadifferentformofprogrammanagementandthere?
arefewcommonthreadswhichrunamongallprograms.
)
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Totlie extent that there arecommonproblems andsolutionsamongthe programs,
the Interagency CommitteeonAtmosphereSciences (ICAS) is bringing
together agency representatives whoare involved in weathermodificationresearch,
for the purposeof sharingtheir ideas andapproachesto various problems.
In addition, aseries of lead agencieshavebeenestablishedto concentrate
efforts in particular areas: Interior in precipitation; Agriculture in lightning
suppression; Commercein severe storms, including hurricanes; NSFin hailresearch:
andTransportationin fog suppression. Theseleadroles provideforcoordination
in areas with commoncharacteristics and have gone a long way
towardeliminating duplicative efforts. Although morethan one agencyis involvedina
generalarea suchasinadvertentmodification, theireffortsarekeyed
towardparticularobjectives.
IhopethisinformationwillbehelpfultoyouandIwouldliketothankyoufor
sharing your views withus. Wewouldbehappyto provide you anyadditional
informationyoumayneedconcerningcurrentefforts intheweathermodification
area.
Sincerely,
NormanE. Ross, Jr.,
AssistantDirector, DomesticCouncil.
)
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Thefuture direction of theDoDweathermodification programis influenced
not onlybyourperceptionsof the usefulnessof the technology, butalsobythe
EnvironmentalModification Convention. TheEnvironmentalModification Convention
constrains the useof military weathermodification activities to those
not havingwidespread, long-lasting, or severeeffects. Theeffect of theEnvironmentalModification
Convention, whensuperimposed on ourpresent perceptions
of technology, is to further devalue the developmentof weathermodification
as a weaponof war. Asaresult, ourpresentefforts are directed solely at fog
andclouddissipation.
)
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TextofUnitedXatioxsConventionox- theProhibitionofMilitaryorAxyOtherHostileUseofEnvironmentalModification
Techniques
)
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6/10/2015 6:47:26 AM
StateStatutesConcerningWeatherModification
Twenty-nine States were found which have sometype of statute discussing
weathermodification. Thesestate statuteswerefoundbyanexaminationof the
indices to thestate codesunderthetopicsweathermodification, climatecontrol
andcloudseeding. Statuteswhichhavebeenrepealedarenotincluded.
1
Thefollowing chart divides the types of weathermodification statutes into
three maincategories: comprehensive, licensing andother. Thecomprehensive
categorywouldinclude those statuteswhichincludeprovisionsrelatingnotonly
to licensing but also to generalpolicy, liability, etc. State statutes putin the
licensing category areentirely, or almostentirely, concerned with thelicensing
of weathermodifiers. The"other" category wouldinclude States like Hawaii
whichdiscuss weathermodification in some mannerbut have neither a comprehensive
statute norone concerninglicensing. States forwhichnoprovisions
concerningweathermodificationwerefoundcontainanotationof"noprovisions"
onthe chart. Theexacttext of those provisions follows thechart.
It should be noted thatin mostcases the State codes werecurrent through
the 1976sessions, however, in somecases the mostcurrent material available
wasfromthe1975sessions.
Typesofweathermodification statutes
States Comprehensive Licensing Other
Alabama Noprovisions
Alaska Noprovisions..
Arizona Arizona Rev. Stat. §§45-
2401—45-2405.
Arkansas. Noprovisions
California. CaliforniaWaterCode§§ 400-
415;§ 235. California GovernmentCode§
53063. California
Pub. Res. Code
§ 5093.36.
Colorado Colorado Rev. Stat. §§
36-20-
101—36-20-126.
Connecticut Connecticut Gen. Stat, Ann
§
24-5-24-8.
Delaware. Noprovisions
Florida FloridaStat. Ann.§§ 403.281-
403.411.
Georgia Noprovisions
Hawaii Hawaii Rev. Stat. §174-5(8).
Idaho Idaho Code §§ 22-3201-22-
3202; 22-4301-22-4302.
Illinois IllinoisAnn. Stat. ch. 1463/4,
§§ 1-32.
Indiana Noprovisions
Iowa Iowa Code Ann. §§361.1-
361.7.
Kansas KansasStat. §§ 19 212f; 82a1401-
82a-1425.
Kentucky Noprovisions..
Louisiana Louisiana Rev. Stat. Ann.
§§ 2201-2208.
Maine... Noprovisions.
Maryland Noprovisions
Massachusetts Noprovisions
Michigan Noprovisions.
Minnesota MinnesotaStat. Ann. 42.01-. ....
42.14.
Mississippi Noprovisions..
Missouri Noprovisions
Montana... Montana Rev. Codes Ann.
§§ 89 310—89331.
Nebraska NevadaRev. Stat.
§§ 2 2401—
2 2449; 81 829.45.
1This
searchw.
544.240; 244.190.
NewHampshire
37-1-75-31-15.
NewYork. New York Gen. Mun. Law
§
119-p.
North Carolina Noprovisions .
North Dakota. North Dakota Cent. Code
§§
2-07-01-2-07-13; 37-
17.1-15; 58-03-07.
Ohio. Noprovisions..
Oklahoma OklahomaStat. Ann., title 2,
§§ 1401-1432.
Oregon OregonRev. Stat. §§ 558010-
558.990; 451.010; 451.420.
Pennsylvania PennsylvaniaStat. Ann, title
3, §§
1101-1118.
RhodeIsland Noprovisions
SouthCarolina Noprovisions..
South Dakota. South Dakota Compiled Laws
Ann. §§
38-9-1—38-9-22;
1-40-8; 10-12-18.
Tennessee Noprovisions _
Texas Texas Water Code, title 2,
§§14.001-14.112; Texas
Civil Code, title 120A.
§
6889-7(16).
Utah Utah Code Ann. §§73-15-3—
73-15-8.
Vermont Noprovisions
Virginia Noprovisions
Washington Washington Rev. Code Ann
§§
43.37.010-43.37.200; 43.
27A.080(6); 43.27A.180(1).
WestVirginia WestVirginiaCode§§ 29 2B1-
29-2B-15.
Wisconsin... WisconsinStat. Ann.§ 195.40.
Wyoming WyomingStat. §§
10-4—10-6,
§§
9-267-9-276)
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Membership and Charterof theU.S. Departmentof Commerce
WeatherModification Advisory Board
WeatherModification Advisory Board
Mr. HarlanCleveland, Chairman, Director, Programin International Affairs.
AspenInstitute forHumanisticStudies, P.O. Box2820, RosedaleRd., Princeton,
N.J. 08540.
Dr. D. RayBooker, President, Aeromet, Inc., P.O. BoxFF, Norman, OK73070.
Dr. RoscoeR. Braham, Jr., Director, Cloud Physics Laboratory, University of
Chicago, Chicago, Illinois60637.
Mr. StanleyA. Changnon, Jr., Head, AtmosphericScienceSection, Illinois State
WaterSurvey, Box232, Champaign-Urbana, Illinois61801.
Mr. AbramChayes, Professorof Law, HarvardLawSchool, Cambridge, Mass.
02138.
Dr. JohnP. Craven, Deanof Marine Programs, University of Hawaii, 2540
MaileWay, Honolulu, Hawaii96822.
Dr. JamesA. Crutchfield, Jr., ProfessorofEconomics. DepartmentofEconomics,
UniversityofWashington, Seattle, Washington98105.
Mr. Robert D. Elliott, President, North American WeatherConsultants, Inc.,
Goleta, California93017.
Dr. John W. Firor. Director, National Centerfor Atmospheric Research, P.O.
Box1470, Boulder, Colorado80302.
Dr. T. KeithGlennan, 11483Waterview, Reston, VA22070.
Mr. ThomasL. Kimball. Executive Vice President, National Wildlife Federation,
141216thStreet, Washington, D.C. 20036.
Dr. ThomasF. Malone, Director, HolcombResearchInstitute, ButlerUniversity,
Indianapolis, Indiana46208.
Ms. MarthaA. Mclnnis, President, Enviro South, Inc., 3815 Interstate Court,
Suite202, Montgomery. Alabama36109.
Mr. HermanPollack, Research Professor, International Affairs, Room714
Library, George WashingtonUniversity, Washington, D.C. 20052.
Mr. WallaceN. Robinson, III, Chairman, WesternKansasGroundwaterManagementDistrictNo.
1, FederalBuilding, ScottCity, KA67871.
Dr. Joanne Simpson, Professor of Environmental Sciences, Center for AdvancedStudies.
UniversityofVirginia, Charlottesville, VA22903.
Mr. S. BryceStreibel, Fessenden, NorthDakota58438)
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